Authored by Augustine I Airaodion
Abstract
Background: With the recent increase in the consumption of sachet and bottled water in major cities and towns of Nigeria due to lack of portable drinking water, there is need to investigate the prevalence of possible contaminants in these water that may have toxicological effect on human when consumed.Aim: Quality assessment of sachet and bottled water produced and/or sold in Ibadan, Nigeria was the aim of this study. Place and duration of study: This research was carried out in Ibadan, the Oyo State capital of Nigeria between November 2018 and February 2019.
Methodology: Twenty sachet and five bottled drinking water brands; making a total of 25 brands from different manufacturers were used for this study. They were purchased randomly from local markets, shops and street vendors within Ibadan metropolis. They were clearly marked for easy identification and transported to the Quality Assurance Laboratory of Water Corporation, Eleyele, Ibadan for immediate analysis. The samples were examined physically and information on the packages were recorded. Each product was carefully opened to avoid contamination. The physical, chemical and bacteriological qualities as well as the mineral composition of all samples were analyzed using standard methods and results were compared with the recommended WHO/NIS guidelines for quality water.
Results: Physical examination indicated that all the sampled water were registered with NAFDAC but 70% of the sachet water had no manufacturing and expiry dates. The results of physical, chemical and bacteriological qualities as well as the mineral composition of sachet and bottled drinking water analyzed showed that 90% of the values were within the guideline of WHO/NIS for quality water.
Conclusion: Though, the average temperature values of both the sachet and bottled drinking water samples were significantly above the WHO/ NIS standard, it did not have any effect on their microbiological quality properties. Total coliforms, faecal coliforms and enterococci bacteria that principally characterize drinking water quality were not present in any of the water samples. Generally, the results obtained in this study indicated that sachet and bottled drinking water produced and/or sold in Ibadan metropolis were of good quality and hygienic for consumption.
Keywords: Sachet and bottled water; Quality assessment; WHO/NIS guidelines; Ibadan
Introduction
Water is one of the indispensable resources for the continued existence of all living things including man and adequate supply of fresh and clean drinking water is a basic need for all human beings [1]. In nature, all water contain impurities; as water flows in streams, accumulates in lakes and filters through layers of soil and rock in the ground, it dissolves or absorbs substances it come in contact with, which may be harmful or harmless [2].One of the major and critical problems in most developing countries today is the provision of an adequate and safe drinking water to its populace [3]. Drinking water that is safe and aesthetically acceptable is a matter of high priority to Standard Organization of Nigeria (SON), National Agency for Foods and Drugs Administration and Control (NAFDAC) and other regulatory agencies in Nigeria and is expected to meet the Nigerian Industrial Standard (NIS). Furthermore, drinking water that is fit for human consumption is expected to meet the World Health Organization (WHO) standard and be free from physical and chemical substances as well as microorganisms in an amount that can be hazardous to health [4]. It is a known fact that no single method of purification can eliminate 100 % contaminants from drinking water. However, water can be and should be made safe for consumption within acceptable limits [4].Sachet and bottled water are any commercially treated water, manufactured, packaged and distributed for sale in sealed food grade containers and is intended for human consumption. The difference between the two types of water is the material used to package them. It is also believing that bottled water is purer than sachet water. In Nigeria and other countries, sachet water is often referred to as ‘pure water’. The production of sachet water in Nigeria started in the late 90s and today the advancement in scientific technology has made sachet water production one of the fastest growing industries in the country. Water consumers are frequently unaware of the potential health risks associated with exposure to water borne contaminants which have often led to diseases like diarrhea, cholera, dysentery, typhoid fever, legionnaire’s disease and parasitic diseases [5]. The continuous increase in the sale and indiscriminate consumption of packaged drinking water in Nigeria is of public health significance, as the prevalence of water related diseases in developing countries like Nigeria is determined by the quality of their drinking water [6].
The safety of drinking water in poor and deprived communities has in the last decade been in jeopardy as a result of the introduction of refuse and sewage into sources of water supply. The intake of unwholesome water could have devastating effects on health as unsafe drinking water is a key determinant of many microbial diseases with serious complications in immune-competent and immune-compromised individuals. The introduction of sachet water was aimed at providing safe, hygienic and affordable instant drinking water to the public and to curb the magnitude of water related infections in the country [6].
Earlier investigations conducted in Bauchi, Kano, Owerri, Lagos and Zaria (some major cities in Nigeria) on the safety of drinking water have shown that bottled water has good microbiological quality while the quality of some sachet water was noted to be doubtful. This observation was based on studies carried out on water samples to ascertain the presence of heterotrophic bacteria, indicators of faecal contamination (total coliforms, faecal coliforms and enterococci) and for lead, manganese and iron [7]. Lack of information on pathogenic or parasitic organisms associated with drinking water creates some uncertainties in our understanding of the overall quality of drinking water in our markets. Some sachet waters have been reported to contain bacteria such as Bacillus sp., Pseudomonas sp., Klebsiella sp., Streptococcus sp., and oocysts of Cryptosporidia sp. Apart from environmental contaminants, improper storage and handling by vendors also poses a serious threat to the health of the ignorant consumers [5].
Pure water is known to be colorless, odourless and tasteless with high boiling and melting points as well as high heat of vapourization. Pure water can be slightly ionized reversibly to yield hydrogen and hydroxyl ions. Therefore, water is not just a solvent in which the chemical reactions of the living cell occur [8]. It is often considered in direct participation in those reactions [9]. Quality of drinking water is evaluated based on its chemical components. This is done by assessing the pH, hardness, total alkalinity, dissolved oxygen, carbon dioxide, heavy metals and organic constituents [4].
Consumption of sachet water in Nigeria is on the increase irrespective of whether they have NAFDAC Certification or not. However, despite the strong effort by NAFDAC in the regulation and quality assessment of sachet water and other foods and drugs in Nigeria, most manufacturers have not complied with the agency’s regulation [10,11]. There are a growing number of reported public illnesses such as typhoid, diarrhea and other water borne diseases arising from consumption of sachet water [2]. Sachet water serves as a major source of potable drinking water in Ibadan and it environ as well as most cities in Nigeria.
Several studies have been carried out on water quality of varying degrees and coverage. Some were carried out on the chemical quality of the water, some on the microbiological quality, some on the physical quality and some on the physiochemical quality of the water. For instance [12], in their study of sachet water packaged within Kano metropolis, analyzed the physicochemical characteristics (color, taste, odour, alkalinity, total hardness, pH, chloride, sodium, potassium, calcium, lead, zinc, chromium, copper, cobalt, nickel and manganese) using standard methods. All samples were tasteless, colorless and odourless. The pH, alkalinity and total hardness were within WHO [13] permissible limit. The concentration of sodium, potassium and calcium was found to be within the acceptable limit and the chloride of most of the samples is above the WHO [13] acceptable limit. The concentrations of all the heavy metals (lead, chromium, and nickel) analyzed in that study were found to be above the WHO [13] permissible limit, while concentrations of copper and zinc were below the WHO [13], permissible limit. Manganese concentration was found to fall within WHO permissible limit in 70% of the total samples, while 17% of the samples have concentrations above the WHO standard and four of the samples have concentration below the WHO recommendation. [14] examined the microbiological quality of sachet drinking water and bottled water sold on the streets of Kumasi, Ghana and concluded that bottle water in the Ghanaian market is of good microbiological quality. [15] studied the relationship between ground (well) water quality and refuse dumpsites in Zaria. [16] studied the quality of sachet and bottle water in Boltanga municipal of Ghana. Danso-Boateng and
Frimpong [17] studied the quality analysis of plastic sachet and bottled water brands produced or sold in Kumasi, Ghana. [18] studied the physiochemical quality of sachet water consumed in Kano metropolis. [19] studied the microbiological analysis of packaged drinking water sold in Chennai, India. [20] studied the assessment of sachet water quality in Zaria area of Kaduna State, Nigeria. [21] studied the qualitative assessment of sachet and bottled water marketed in Bauchi metropolis, Nigeria. [22] studied the drinking water quality assessment and its effects on residents’ health in Wondo genet campus, Ethiopia. The aim of this study is to provide more information on the quality of sachet and bottled water produced and/or sold in Ibadan, Western Nigeria, by collecting samples randomly from local markets, shops and street vendors within the Ibadan metropolis, analyzing them in the laboratory and assessing their quality in comparison with the World Health Organization (WHO) and Nigerian Industrial Standard (NIS) standard for quality water.
Materials and Methods
Study area
Ibadan is the capital and most populous city of Oyo State, Nigeria. With a population of over 3 million, it is the third most populous city in Nigeria after Lagos and Kano; it is the country’s largest city by geographical area. At the time of Nigeria’s independence in 1960, Ibadan was the largest and most populous city in the country, and the second most populous in Africa after Cairo [23]. Ibadan is in south-western Nigeria, 128 km inland northeast of Lagos and 530km southwest of Abuja, the Federal Capital, and is a prominent transit point between the coastal region and the areas in the hinterland of the country. Ibadan had been the centre of administration of the old Western Region since the days of the British colonial rule, and parts of the city’s ancient protective walls still stand to this day. The principal inhabitants of the city are the Yorubas, as well as various communities from other parts of the country [23]. It is an urban centre where both sachet and bottled water are produced and sold (Figure 1).Sampling of sachet and bottled water
Twenty (20) sachet and 5 bottled drinking water brands; making a total of 25 brands from different manufacturers were used for this study. These are the most popular and consumed brands in Ibadan. Triplicate batches of each brand were purchased randomly from local markets, shops and street vendors within Ibadan Metropolis. The samples were clearly marked for easy identification and transported to the Quality Assurance Laboratory of Water Corporation, Eleyele, Ibadan for immediate analysis. The samples were examined physically and information on the packages were recorded. Each product was carefully opened to avoid contamination. For bottled water, the cap of each bottle was carefully removed to avoid touching the opening. In the case of sachet water, an edge of the package was cut with a sterilized scissors and carefully placed in a sterilized beaker. The physical, chemical and bacteriological parameters as well as mineral composition were determined by taking water directly from the original package (sachet or bottle) and tested. Twenty-five (25) bottled samples and one hundred (100) sachet water samples were analyzed, with five (5) samples from each brand for a total 125 samples.Physical examination of sachet and bottled water
Physical examination of labeling information was carried out according to the method described by [24].Determination of physical qualities
Temperature was measured using Standard Method 2550 B: Laboratory and Field Methods, using a multipurpose pH meter (HANNA pH 209, USA) adjusted for temperature in Degrees Celsius (°C), as detailed in Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater [25]. Color was determined using Standard Method 2120 C: Spectrophotometric Method, with an ultra violet (U.V.) spectrophotometer (HACH LANGE DR 5000, USA.) expressed in hazen units (HU), according to Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater [25]. The turbidity was measured using Standard Method 2130 B: Nephelometric Method, by turbidimeter (HACH 2100P, USA) in Nephelometric Turbidity Units (NTU), as explained in Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater [25]. Conductivity was determined using Standard Method 2510 B: Laboratory Method, via a conductivity meter (JENWAY 4510, U.K) in micro-Siemens per centimeter (μs/cm), as detailed in Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater [25]. Total dissolved solids (TDS) and total suspended solids (TSS) were determined using Standard Methods 2540 B: Total Dissolved Solids Dried at 103-105 °C and 2540 D: Total Suspended Solids Dried at 103-105 °C, respectively. The units were expressed in mg/L according to Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater [25].Determination of chemical qualities
Alkalinity was determined using Standard Method 2320 B: Titration Method in mg/L, as explained in Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater [25]. Total hardness and calcium hardness were determined using Standard Method 2340 C: EDTA Titrimetric Method and Standard Method 3500-Ca-B: EDTA Titrimetric Method, respectively, as detailed in Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater [25]; expressed in mg/L. Chloride was analysed using Standard Method 4500-Cl–B: Argentometric Method in mg/L, and pH measured using Standard Method 4500-H+ B: Electrometric Method, by a multipurpose pH meter (HANNA pH 209, USA), according to Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater [25].Determination of minerals and heavy metals in sachet and bottled water
The following minerals and heavy metals; Calcium (Ca), Cadmium (Cd), Chloride (Cl), Chromium (Cr), Copper (Cu), Iron (Fe), Potassium (K), Manganese (Mn), Sodium (Na), Lead (Pb) and Zinc (Zn) were determined for each water sample using Atomic absorption spectrophotometry (Buck Scientific, VPG 210) procedure as reported [26,27].Determination of bacteriological qualities
Total coliform and faecal coliform organism numbers were determined using Standard Method 9221 B: Standard Total Coliform Fermentation Technique. Heterotrophic bacteria were enumerated using Standard Method 9215 C: Spread Plate Method, according to Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater [25]. Gallenkamp, Economic Incubator Size 2, England was used. The number of colonies forming organisms was counted manually, and again, bottles inspected for the formation of acids and gases in vial.Statistical analysis
Data were subjected to analysis using Graph Pad Prism, version 6.0. Results were presented as mean ± standard deviations. One-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) followed by Turkey’s test was used for comparison of the mean. Differences between the experimental mean and WHO/NIS standard values were significant at p<0.05.Results and Discussion
According to World Health Organization (WHO), diarrheal diseases account for an estimated 4.1% of the total daily global burden and are responsible for the deaths of 1.8 million people every year. It was estimated that 88% of that burden is attributable to unsafe water supply, sanitation and hygiene [28]. The National Agency for Food, Drug Administration and Control (NAFDAC), the agency responsible for regulating drugs, foods and chemicals in Nigeria requires that all the labeling of food and drugs must be informative and accurate. This information required on labeling include manufacturer’s name, contact information, batch number, nutritional information, manufacturing date, expiration date (Best before date) and NAFDAC registration number [29,30]. The result of the physical examination of the sachet and bottled water investigated in this study is presented in (Table 1).
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