Authored by Jeanne Badgett*
Abstract
An evaluation of the quality of design, materials, construction, appearance, and performance of men’s 100% cotton jersey knit t-shirts from three retail categories: mass merchant (Brand MM), fast fashion (Brand FF), and better (Brand B) was performed. White t-shirts from each category were tested according to ASTM and AATCC standards and specifications [1]. Evaluations and measurements were conducted before washing, and after one, five, ten, and twenty laundry cycles. The t-shirts were evaluated for fabric weight, fabric count, color change, whiteness change, crocking, smoothness appearance, bursting strength, pilling, dimensional stability, and skewness. In appearance and performance testing, the ‘mass merchant’ t-shirts had the most results with ratings and measurements that would be considered the ‘best’ or more desirable. But from a statistical standpoint, none of the results for the ‘mass merchant’ retail category were significantly (p < 0.05) better than the ‘fast fashion’ or ‘better’ categories. In conclusion, the decision to purchase a t-shirt from these retail categories may depend on consumer expectations [2].
Keywords: Quality; T-shirt
Abbreviations: MM: the t-shirt brand purchased from a mass merchant retailer; FF: the t-shirt brand purchased from a fast fashion retailer; B: the t-shirt brand purchased from a retailer classified as ‘better’; ASTM: Society for Testing and Materials; AATCC: American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists
Introduction
Is there really a difference between a $5 white t-shirt and a $125 white t-shirt? Lifestyle reporter, Julia Brucculieri J [3], posed this question to textile experts and learned that, although there are several factors that determine the price of a white t-shirt, quality is not directly linked price, and the value assessment is up to the consumer [3].
Apparel price is inherently defined by how a brand needs to position its product relative to where the competition is, but pricing is also heavily dependent on consumer expectations [4,5]. Consumers are value driven and expect more for what they are prepared to pay [6]. Because the relationship between product pricing, positioning, branding, and perceived quality is complex, it is crucial that an ap parel retailer finds the right balance between these criteria in order to remain profitable and satisfy the consumers’ desire for value [7].
Consumers benefit by understanding the different features in products because they are bombarded with a plethora of brands of the same merchandise in varying degrees of quality [8]. Under the vast umbrella of fast fashion retailers and traditional retailers, apparel quality and pricing can be so indiscriminate in nature; it is difficult for consumers to distinguish differences in order to ascertain its value [9,10]. Therefore, manufacturers, brands, and marketers use quality as a concept to differentiate their product from their competitors [11]. Chowdhary U [8]states, “Quality products tend to meet or exceed the consumer expectation”. Consumers want price tags that are commensurate with the quality, yet apparel retailers are not consistently delivering on that desire because product pricing and positioning is not a reliable indicator of quality [12,13]. Some apparel companies have resorted to altering production methods to remain profitable [14]. And as a result of rapidly changing productions methods and quality being in the eye of the beholder, gone are the days when the retailer and cost of apparel indicate quality [15,16].
Purpose
The purpose of this research was to evaluate the quality of design, materials, construction, appearance, and performance of Mens 100% cotton jersey knit white t-shirts from three retail categories: mass merchant, fast fashion, and better.
Research objectives of this study were to:
1. Identify and compare the product specifications of men’s 100% cotton jersey knit white t-shirts at three retail categories.
2. Measure and compare the appearance and performance characteristics of men’s 100% cotton jersey knit white t-shirts at three retail categories before and after home laundering.
3. Compare the appearance and performance characteristics of men’s 100% cotton jersey knit white t-shirts at three retail categories to the ASTM D4154 Standard Specification requirements[ 17].
Review of Literature
Introduction
T-shirts are “mundane, quite unobtrusive…and amongst the commonest of mass-produced garments” [18]. Worn day or night, in both leisure and luxury contexts, t-shirts are considered “a basic, all purpose form of clothing which is universal in application” [18]. And their omnipresent nature has enabled these garments to become a global phenomenon. Some t-shirts have unisex sizing while others can reflect fashion trends through oversized or fitted styling, deep armholes, and varied lengths [19]. The year round, season less appeal of t-shirts is achieved with simple changes in the color, fabric weight, or sleeve length [20].
At the turn of the twentieth century, the US Navy began to issue undershirts to be worn under service Mens’ uniforms, leading to the crew wearing just the undershirt to avoid soiling their uniforms while performing chores and dirty jobs. Undershirts soon became available to the public and were quickly adopted by farmers and more laborers as the garments were inexpensive and easy to maintain. The undershirt as outerwear was further popularized in the 1950s when worn on-screen by the virile actors Marlon Brando and James Dean as they portrayed characters with defiant spirits in the movies A Streetcar Named Desire and Rebel without a Cause. It has since materialized as a multifunctional garment that can be easily worn by anyone regardless of gender, age, race, fashion taste, social status, income, profession [18,20].
Comfortable, durable, and versatile, t-shirts have mass appeal because they may be worn as outerwear or underwear [21]. T-shirts are the most purchased Men’s clothing item[22]. Worldwide approximately 3,800 t-shirts are sold every minute, creating a market worth over three billion dollars. Because a t-shirt can cost so little, it is a clothing option for consumer’s at all social and economic levels. The adaptability of the t-shirt has made it the “everyday garment for so called under classes, but in other social contexts it can be a high fashion product with a chic designer logo for which an affluent consumer will pay an exorbitant price” [18]. But even though “there are many different classes of t-shirts, but they can themselves be without absolute links to class”[18].
Over the years, Mens undershirts have functioned as t-shirts, especially the classic white crew neck t-shirt. But as the technical definitions of a t-shirt and undershirt are not the same, some manufacturers have confused things further by interchanging the terms t-shirt and undershirt in their promotion and packaging. They are both marketed and consumed to be worn alone or under another shirt. Some purists would argue that an undershirt is not a t-shirt because they believe undershirts are meant to be worn solely as undergarments. Undershirts tend to be made of thinner fabrics, and sometimes feature moisture wicking properties (“Why You Should Care about what’s Under There,” n.d.). The purpose of an undershirt is to absorb sweat and to provide a defensive layer between the wearer and his more expensive clothing. An undershirt can also provide insulation when needed, and some styles offer compression to the torso area to provide a slimmer appearance [23]. In these instances, the undershirt may be designed around function instead of form (“Why You Should Care about what’s Under There,” n.d.). Ingham’s viewpoint that “t-shirts are thicker than undershirts because they are designed to be worn on their own and not necessarily as a layer under something else” is limited because “textile technology has developed fabrics that look heavy without the weight” [24].
T-shirts can be manufactured with varying degrees of quality and construction methods. And, the wide range of prices at which they are sold may not always be consistent with the quality level [20,22,23]. Glock RE, et al. [20] state that “undershirts have more consistency between price and quality; whereas outerwear t-shirts vary widely in quality in price and sometimes rely more on emotional appeal than intrinsic quality”. But through this wide variety of t-shirts, the needs and expectations of consumers can be met [25].
T-shirt manufacturing is typically dominated by large companies that produce high volumes. Because the t-shirt is a basic apparel item [26], it can be continuously manufactured and remain relatively unchanged over multiple fashion cycles. This allows for high levels of automation and specialized equipment [27]. T-shirt fabrics are primarily 100% cotton or cotton and polyester blends; all cotton is generally used in making better quality t-shirts, but other factors such as yarn type, fabrication, design treatments, and fabric finishes can also affect quality. Styling variations that impact quality may be seen in the neckline, trims, the inclusion of pockets, or applied design.
The quality properties of cotton fibers and fabrics make 100% cotton t-shirts more desirable for daily wear. A 2015 Cotton Incorporated survey of 500 consumers indicated that 79% agree that cotton fibers make better quality clothing [28]. However, the influence of sportswear on everyday fashion has resulted in more t-shirts with blends of man-made fibers that provide performance features (“A comparison of men’s t-shirts”). It is also because of escalating cotton prices that some brands and retailers began incorporating more man-made fibers into clothing. “Cotton dominant clothes (containing 51% cotton or greater) declined 11.8 percent in 2011 compared to 2010, while imports of predominantly manmade apparel increased 8.3 percent” [28]. Rising cotton prices have put pressure on manufacturers to raise t-shirt prices, use lower quality cotton, or incorporate a cotton blend (Smith, 2014). But ultimately, fabric quality is impacted by the combination and interaction of properties and characteristics of each component used to produce and finish the fabric [29].
Fabric weight is a factor that determines cost and quality, as well as its suitability for the intended use and comfort of the wearer [30]. However, “there isn’t necessarily a correlation between the thickness of a t-shirt’s fabric and its quality” [35]. Mens fashion blogger, Jamie Rice [27] relates higher fabric weight to “cheap undershirts [made with] thicker cotton that has bulkier neck and arm seams” [27]. And although thicker, heavier weight t-shirts may not move as freely, they may be more durable, which is perceived as a quality attribute [27]. Conversely, lightweight t-shirts may be luxuriously thin, produced with fine yarns using costly methods to attain a delicate fabric weight. But smaller, finer yarns tend to be weaker, and lightweight t-shirts may drape too limply over the body. Although fabric weight is measureable way to compare t-shirts and “fabric itself provides a foundation for quality, a high-quality fabric does not guarantee and high quality garment”.
The characteristics for a perfect t-shirt depend on the desires of the consumer. Quality perceptions and preferences “guide the choices for t-shirts that are fitted or relaxed, thick or thin, long or short, and crisp or worn”. The pursuit of manufacturers to provide a perfect t-shirt has led to higher prices for some shirts. And according to Jeffrey Silberman, professor and chair of the Fashion Institute of Technology’s Textile and Development Marketing program, “you’re not going to get [high quality] properties with a shirt that sells for $5.99”. Yet cost does not always reflect aesthetic or durability benefits [30] and quality is a multidimensional construct that cannot measured by a single attribute.
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