Iris Publishers- Open access Journal of of Agriculture and Soil Science | Tomato Shading Study- Las Vegas 2018 Results

Authored by Angela O Callaghan*, 

Abstract

Cooperative Extension in southern Nevada has been recommending shading tomato plants in the summer to extend the season and help improve production as well as quality. The question remained “Does shading up tomatoes really help in such a harsh desert climate, and if so, how much shade? Do all tomato cultivars benefit equally?” This research aimed to obtain information that could be useful to small growers, including household growers, who must confront the in this region.

We selected four commonly grown tomato cultivars: Celebrity, Early girl, Heat Wave and Red Cherry (a very small-fruited variety). The treatments were, 0%, 30% and 50% shade. We transplanted seedlings into raised beds with organically amended soils. The land where the raised beds were located where plants had not grown previously. Major problems included wind damage, sunscald, herbivory and root knot nematodes.

The project had noticeable results, indicating that 30% shade gave the best yields. In the 50% shade treatment, the plants grew large, but had few blossoms or fruit. The high standard deviation made the 2018 results less than statistically significant. Despite the problems, the data will give guidance to growers.

Introduction

Whether growing in a large container on the patio or a row in the home vegetable garden, tomatoes are one of the most popular vegetables in the world, but growing tomatoes in the Mojave Desert is not easy. The average temperatures in summer range from 100°-104° F (40° C). There is generally no rainfall during the summer. Heat, low humidity, salty infertile soil and intense sunlight all conspire to foil the home gardener. The choices for Mojave gardeners were either to let the plants die back around June, when weather conditions became extreme, or cut them back at that time, and water through the summer in the hope they revived when temperatures were again in the double digits.

Research on protection of tomatoes has concentrated on growth in greenhouses or other means of protected agriculture and use of different shade colors to improve crop quality [1,2]. While much research studies tomato growth in arid environments [3,4], no research has been done on protecting tomatoes from the intense sunlight and other conditions found in the Mojave Desert

Material and Methods

Location

Center for Urban Water Conservation in North Las Vegas, NV (A collaboration of University of Nevada Cooperative Extension, UNLV, City of North Las Vegas, & Bureau of Land Management). This site has several acres (hectares) of trees, vines, vegetables, green houses and shade houses in the Mojave Desert.

In addition, there is a large pool of Master Gardener volunteers on site, other research is occurring, and infrastructure exists, providing electricity and irrigation.

The site of the raised beds, however, was virgin desert soilsaline, infertile, pH over 8.

Design

• Nine beds, each 1.2 m x 4.9 m

• Wooden walls, depth 10”

• Each bed represented one treatment (0%, 30%, 50%)

• Three replicates

• Four plants per treatment (2018);

• Fill-standard raised bed fill

• Frames for shade cloth-schedule 40pvc

Plant material

Seeds were obtained from Rimer seeds (a completely on-line company). Four commonly available varieties were tested: Early Girl, Celebrity, Heatwave, and Red Cherry

Methods

Plants were started from seed in an unheated greenhouse, transferred into 10 cm pots when four true leaves appeared, and planted in raised beds after the six true leaf stage (mid-May). Shade cloth was installed on June 2 (30 and 50% shade).

Results

SPAD Readings were taken on all plant samples in June and July 2018. Among varieties and treatments, Celebrity and Early Girl displayed a significant SPAD increase only in the 30% shade treatment from June to July. There was no significant difference with either Heatwave or Red Cherry (Table 1&2).

Table 1:BRIX Readings were taken on a sample of fruits on day of harvest.

Table 2:YIELDS The 2018 harvest began in August, which is late for this part of the country, and continued to November 1.

Problems

As mentioned above, the soil had not previously been used for any agriculture. Like many Southern Nevada soils, it is infertile, salty and alkaline with very poor structure. For this reason, raised beds were the method of choice. Unfortunately, they were built only 20cm. high, when they probably should have been twice that. Although they were filled with raised bed mix, they were still affected by the challenging conditions of the soil below.

Herbivory was a major problem. Birds, such as quail and mockingbirds, attacked fruits, as did rats and cottontail rabbits. Root knot nematode afflicted all varieties, but most particularly Early Girl and Red Cherry. All cultivars were susceptible to ground squirrel damage to roots. In fact, all 2019 varieties were destroyed by ground squirrels by mid-august.

In order to promote pollination of fruit trees at the Center, beehives were located not far from the raised beds. All beehives became Africanized over late spring, and access to the experimental site was limited until the hives could be removed and replaced.

Discussion

Despite a host of problems, the trials indicated that shade treatments do make a difference when growing tomatoes in the Mojave Desert’s harsh climate. The number of marketable fruits was significantly higher under the 30% shade treatment for all except the Red Cherry variety. Under the 50% shade treatment, all varieties produced the fewest number of marketable fruits. These plants grew the largest, however, indicating that the high shade level interfered with flower, but not foliar, production.

Varietal differences appeared in the BRIX data as well. Celebrity and Heatwave displayed the highest sugar levels under the 30% shade treatment; Early Girl tomatoes were sweetest under 50% shade, but unshaded Red Cherry tomatoes had the highest sugar levels.

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Iris Publishers- Open access Journal of of Engineering Sciences | The Unique Composition and Stability of Water-Fuel Emulsion

 

Authored by AV Dunaev*,

Abstract

The aim of the research is to analyze the use of water-fuel emulsions (WFE) and to develop a method for producing highly stable WFE with a high-water content. The method is based on the introduction and mixing in diesel fuel (DF) complex hydrophobic emulsifiers, the introduction and mixing in distilled water of a complex of hydrophilic emulsifiers, blending compositions fuel and water, mixing them, introducing the mixture and an additional stabilizing oil components and the mechanical and chemical treatment pumping of a mixture of 3.5 min. at a flow rate of 10 cm/s in combined static mixer-activator according to the patent of Russian Federation No. 2411074. At the end of long studies received a unique and more annual durability of WFE, that contains 65% diesel fuel, 33% water and 2% of the com-plex emulsifiers. Hematologically and chromatographic analyses of WFE showed its compliance with the technical regulations on motor fuels. It is mainsheet consumption of diesel fuel by 9%, costs 25 rub. /l. The proportion of light hydrocarbons in WFE up to С15Н32 more than in activated and significantly more than in non-activated DF. And the proportion of heavy hydrocarbons in WFE, since С16Н34, distinctly less than in non-activated and activated DF «Euro». Repeated control of WFE showed the immutability of its properties. A comparison of the spectrograms of the water and WFE showed no water in WFE. Modification of fuels and WFE is explained by mechano-chemistry in the activator. And its further continuation has no proper explanation. It is possible that it is caused by active radicals formed in the activator. The prevalence of light and lower content of heavy components in WFE is extraordinary and indicates the high efficiency of the activator and the uniqueness of the obtained WFE.

Keywords:Diesel fuel; Water; Emulsifiers; Activator; Chromatograph; Fractional composition; Irreversibility; Mechano-chemistry

Introduction

The problems of energy saving and environmental safety in fuel and energy plants are still relevant. To solve them, water-fuel emulsions (WFE), for example, fuel oil + water, motor fuel + water, are appropriate [1-3].

WFE from fuel oil, diesel fuel (DF), heating oil, gas for various testing gives their savings, a noticeable increase in the resource of heat and energy aggregates, their efficiency by 2-3%, a significant reduction in the release of harmful gases. Radical purification of exhaust gases (EG) from NOx (by 90%) by catalytic regenerators requires costs of 40.70 $/kW of diesel power [2]. Are they in the feed to the diesel steam while reducing NOx emission only up to 70%.

For testing in the Navy and in other industries, water in the fuel engine has the following actions [1,2]:

• reduces the temperature and prevents the explosive combustion of fuel,

• smoothest the dynamics of gas pressure in the cylinder,

• increases the average pressure in the cylinders,

• increases the completeness of fuel combustion,

• increases efficiency, does not reduce power, but slightly reduces engine acceleration,

• accelerates the conversion of CO to CO2,

• reduces to EG soot, NOx and to a much carcinogenic benzopyrene С20Н12 (Figure 1) [1],

• cleans the combustion chamber from soot, ensures the operation of the engine in a gentle mode, reduces wear, vibration, noise.

• Water, as a component of motor fuel, has been tested in the world practice by various methods [1-6], including:

• direct injection into the cylinders of internal combustion engines (ICE), which from the pre-war until recently was used in aircraft engines;

• supply of dispersed water to the intake manifold of the internal combustion engine by a separate device or a separate carburetor;

• humidification of the fuel-air mixture, the formation of water-air or steam-air mixture before it is fed into the intake duct of the engine;

• formation of a water-fuel emulsion and its introduction into the fuel tank of machines [7-10].

According to the first technique is known, for example, a method of water injection into the cylinders of the internal combustion engine according to the pa-tent RU No. 2069274. Its drawback - the complexity of the regulation of water supply and the lack of formation of highly water-fuel mixture.

In the second technique known amateur ways of water flow from the micro-channels after the throttle valve of the carburetor, as well as tractor Fordson-Puti-lovets with additional water carburetor.

According to the third method, there are several ways of humidifying the air or fuel-air or preparing an air-water mixture. So, you know spraying water in the intake tract of the internal combustion engine before the carburetor (patent RU No. 2092709)

Another (patent RU No. 2136942) is the saturation of the fuelair mixture by water vapor produced by the heat of exhaust gases of internal combustion engines. Here the disadvantage is the need for an efficient steam generator and relatively low energy performance of water vapor. Analogues of this method are protected by patents of the RF No. 2094642, No. 2352805.

The disadvantage of all three methods of humidifying the fuel-air or creating a water-air mixture is that they do not give an adjustable composition of the highly dispersed fuel-air mixture, as well as energy indicators of the fuel-water-air mixture, which are underestimated in comparison with pure fuel.

On the fourth reception there are many ways of cooking WFE outside of the internal combustion engine, which consists in the preparation of 15-20% of water, of fuel, of the complex substances from emulsifiers, stabilizers, catalysts, combustion, and further their joint stirring. Here are a variety of patents SU No. 699005, 816524, 816524, 1230470, 1243342, 1246593, patent RU No. 2213768, patent RF No. 2294448, US patents No. 3807973, 1498340, 1533158, 1701621, 1701691, 3876391, 4199316, 4244702. 4696638. The disadvantages of entering the water in the internal combustion engine according to the above patents is the difficulty of techniques and tools for the creation of WFE and its lack of stability.

Patent of RF No. 2306447, 2365618, 2367683 for WFE use two groups of substances. In the 1st low molecular weight anionic surfactant and nonionic surfactant in a ratio of 3:1 to 6:1. In the 2nd stabilizing hydrophobiator and a high-molecular surfactant. In the 3rd polar organic solutions from betaine, propanol-2, sorbitol, oil distillate. In the 4th oil-compensating agents.

Examples of emulsifying system under patent No. 2365618 [9] for 76% of diesel fuel and 23% of process water emulsifying system (1% by weight. % to water) includes:

• component 1 - anionic surfactants (alkilsulfates of the general formula), 6,5%; nonionic surfactant (sorbifolia), 2%;

• component 2 - polyolefins (poly-alpha-olefins), 8,7%;

• component 3 – betaine, 3%;

• component 4 - nitrated oil, 6%.

Oil compensating agent apply engine oil or their promoters, providing or facilitating the lubrication of, for example, tributyl phosphate, tridecanol, tricar-bonyl, industrial diethylene triamine, poly-4-methylphenten-1, phosphate esters, thioether dialkyldithiophosphoric acid.

There is a similar version of the emulsifying system for benzowater emulsion.

These complexes of substances provide stability of WFE for up to 72 hours. However, the empirical selection of emulsifying and auxiliary substances (up to 33 substances), as shown by the testing of their cars in publications and patents, still does not provide longterm (up to 3 months) stability of WFE.

Described this mechanism of combustion of water-fuel emulsions [2]. The fuel oil from the injectors has a droplet size of 0.1 to 1mm. If they included a drop of water 1.7 microns, when heated, they give couples. It breaks a drop of fuel, increasing its dispersion, the surface of contact with air. In the high-temperature combustion zone, a drop of WFE explodes, a drop of fuel is dispersed secondarily, the combustion torch increases and reduces the local the maximum of temperatures in the chamber. It is clear that in comparison with the dispersed droplet of a large particle, the radiation area and the heat flux are smaller, burn lengthwise and not fully. At WFE with a uniform distribution of dispersed water, the size of fuel particles is reduced by 1.5…2.5 times, the combustion conditions and efficiency are also improved, the under burning of fuel is reduced, the volume of blast is reduced to an indicator of 1,0 and heat loss with it. The temperature of the dew point of the outgoing gases decreases to 100 °C significantly reduces sulfuric acid corrosion and increases the efficiency of energy and heat units, although it increases the emission of SOx into the atmosphere.

But WFE after storage is less effective than prepared immediately before combustion and without emulsifiers, giving carbon deposits in the ICE. In addition, ensuring long-term stability WFE is possible only with its careful and time-consuming preparation. Therefore, the 80s in Russia, and abroad, successfully operating installation direct feed of WFE in a variety of marine diesel engines, boilers, steam generators. The units have been tested on Russian and foreign trac-tors, MAZ and KamAZ vehicles, confirmed fuel economy up to 10-15%, and on stationary power units up to 40%. The installation is simple, has no moving parts except the pump and energy flow, which is provided by cyclical effects on WFE.

The Moscow institute VIESH also conducted research of water-fuel mixtures for many years. Here [3] it is believed that the activation of a mixture of water and hydrocarbons creates new phases of substances stabilized by electrostatic forces from induced charges. Because of them, free radicals appear in the mixtures, which allows to realize low-temperature combustion, significantly reduce the formation of incomplete combustion products, increase the service life and efficiency of the ICE. The authors [3] conducted, for example, such studies:

Testing of diesel YaMZ-238L on fuel with 20% water (St. Petersburg, Institute of Technology, 19.04.2007, Figures 2,3)

Indicators exhaust gas of the internal combustion engine with WFE in Figures 2,3 review is not required.

Studies of the emulsion of diesel fuel and water (Table 1)

As can be seen from Table 1, even with a water content of 40 and 50%, WFE in all respect’s superior to standard diesel fuel.

Table 1: Emulsion parameters with water content up to 40% [3].

Investigation of the molecular spectrum of WFE from 60% DF and 40% water

From the spectrograms of water and WFE on the spectrometer «Bruker AVANCE-300» follows:

• WFE spectrum consists of groups of signals, corresponding to CH3, CH2 and CH – groups and of groups of signals, corresponding to aromatics,

• signals, corresponding to water molecules, are not detected.

• comparison of the spectrograms of WFE and tap water [3] showed completely new properties of fuel from WFE, where water is not detected.

• So, in WFE a mixture of organic matter was detected, and the water dissolved in it was chemically bound. Similar results were obtained by other researchers.

• Special originality combustion WFE described Zavgorodny B.V. [2]:

• in addition to the improved atomization and mixing of fuel with air due to the vaporization and explosion of water droplets is also termocandelaria of its molecules: 2Н2О > Н2 + 2НО, as well as 2Н2О > 2Н2 + О2,

• therefore, the beginning of the oxidation of fuel molecules is more real products of water decomposition than air oxygen; fuel needs an instant rate of oxidizer, it gives an instant thermal decomposition of water molecules at 1500 °C; thus, 60% of the oxygen from the WFE is used to ignite the fuel in areas, in-accessible to air oxygen,

• hydrogen from dissociated water diffuses into a zone with excess oxygen and compensates for the costs of the heat of combustion for the dissociation of water,

• water vapor increases the volume of combustion products per H/4 kMol of water, which increases the work of gases in the cylinders of the engine.

The changing dynamics of combustion of WFE are shown on indicator diagrams of internal combustion engines [2]. Here, the expansion line is separated from the compression line by a greater distance, the average pressure increases, combustion is completed earlier by 30° of rotation of the crankshaft, the exhaust gas temperature decreases by 6.8 °C, the heat density of the cylinders decreases, the oil in them is less saturated with combustion products, which increases reliability, reduces engine wear. The acceleration of combustion, thanks to the products of water dissociation, ensures its completeness and environmental friendliness. The annual economic effect of only reducing fuel consumption on ships is $15 per 1 kW of power of the main diesel [2].

The above allows us to consider WFE as a special type of fuel.

However, the creation of a stable WFE is a difficult problem. WFE should be resistant to coalescence and sedimentation for at least 72 hours in the operation of the engine, at least a month in its parking lot, at least 3 months in addition, it should provide a lower cost of fuel. But water and hydrocarbons are not soluble in each other. Conventional emulsifiers make them only limited soluble. Thus, in long-term storage there are unclear chemical reactions even with change of coloring of WFE.

At physical influence on water change of its state only briefly because of high mobility of molecules. Hydrogen bonds between them are changeable, molecules with high frequency change their neighbors. In addition, the changeable properties of water and the presence of salts, gases, organic matter. The so degassed water is saturated with them again for a long time. And under the action of cosmic and other radiations free radicals and many other formations are formed in it [2,3], so WFE can change its properties.

Hence, it is clear that the preparation of homogeneous, highly stable WFE as a motor fuel is a difficult task, confirmed by many unsuccessful attempts to create it. Because only in Russia it will be tested at 19 firms.

The purpose of research: To develop methods for the preparation of a stable water-fuel emulsion, that meets the requirements for motor fuels containing a large volume of water, to check its fractional composition, stability and dynamics of the composition in storage.

Conditions, materials and methods: Two batches of unique WFE were pre-pared from 65% diesel fuel, 33% water and 2% emulsifiers, namely from previously studied 10 organic substances [6,8-10], which are included in two different functional groups. In the 1st - hydrophobic substances soluble in diesel fuel, introduced into it and mixed in it. In the 2nd of the substances with hydrophilic, soluble in water, injected into it and stir it. Fuel with its mixed emulsifiers, and water with other mixed emulsifiers were drained together and pumped for at least 5 minutes at a flow rate of 10cm/s through a combined static mixer-activator un-der RF patent No. 2411074. Further, the obtained WFE was controlled chemically, especially for compliance with the regulations for motor fuels and on the chromatograph «Crystallux-4000M» with the PID-PFD detector in the certified Tambov laboratory of forensic medical examination. After a long exposure of WFE its composition on the xromatograph was checked again. Conducted comprehensive operational testing of WFE in a diesel car «Mitsubishi Pajero» 1995 issue. And bench motor tests of WFE at three replications conducted on diesel YaMZ- 236.

Results and Discussion

The formation WFE was accelerated and strengthened by the introduction of stabilizers [6,8-10], consisting of oils, acid esters with a high viscosity index, auxiliary substances from hydroxides, alcohols, esters. Chemmotology and chromatography of the obtained WFE showed: density 897 kg/m3, flash point not lower than 67 °C, filterability temperature not higher than 5°C, corrosion on the copper plate in class I does not show, the sulfur con-tent according to the method RF GOST 32511-2013 corresponds to RF GOST 305.

A comparison of the compositions of WFE and diesel fuel detected on the chromatograph is given in Table 2. It follows from:

1. The proportion of light hydrocarbons in WFE (without taking them into account in the complex of the activated DF «Euro» and the DF from the Institute VNIITiN) until С15Н32 more than in activated DF «Euro» and considerably more than in unactivated fuel «Euro». And the share of heavy hydrocarbons in WFE, starting with C16H34, is significantly less than in inactivated and activated fuel «Euro».

2. Modification of fuels and WFE is explained by the processes of mechano-chemistry, going in the activator under patent No. 2411074. And the continuation of the modification outside the activator (the last column of Table 2), revealed in the 2000s in the Tomsk scientific center, has no proper explanation. It is assumed that it is caused by long-lived active radicals formed in the activator. A physicist Yu.P. Rassadkin and ecologist Drunvalo Melchizedek explain this by the influence of high-energy substances on low-energy ones.

The prevalence of lung and a lower content of heavy components in the WFE and in the activated DF, exposed for 57 days, has extraordinary character and testifies to high efficiency of the activator according to the patent of RF No. 2411074, which was confirmed by his tests on the engines KamAZ-740, JaMZ-236 and ZMZ-406.

The resulting 14.12.2017 WFE withstood until April 2018, again subjected to chromatography, which, like activated DF (last column of Table 2), showed the immutability of the properties of WFE. A comparison of the spectrograms DF and WFE showed the superiority of WFE over DF in fractional composition and without signs of water presence, as in the complex fuel of the Institute of VIESH [3].

Table 2: Comparison of content in WFE and DF.

It should be noted that as if don’t detected water content in WFE can be explained by the fact that water molecules, as the most universal ligands, form complex compounds with fuel molecules, similar to gas hydrates, having specific spectral characteristics.

WFE has remained stable, without separation to 25.01.2019. And the car «Mitsubishi Pajero» is used only on this WFE. At the same time, the morning launch of the ICE was carried out on the 3rd attempt, and after trips on the 1st. The engine works softer, fuel consumption and noise of work decreased, acceleration of the car is normal. There are no negative phenomena in the work of the ICE.

Method of Solution

In this section, the DQM is used to solve the equations. In DQM, we can express the derivative of a function at a given point as a weighted linear summation of the values of the function at all the points in the domain [29]. Therefore, the differential equation can be transformed into a set of algebraic equations expressed by the value of the function at the node. When using this method, there are two questions to be determined:

Conclusion

Studies conducted in Russia and in many other countries, as well as successful testing of WFE on automotive diesel engines, have convincingly shown that WFE can be an environmental fuel for different types of transport. It corresponds to the unique composition and stability of WFE, obtained by the technology of TSTU. It is mainsheet consumption of diesel fuel by 9%, costs 25 rub./l.

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Iris Publishers-Open access Journal of Orthopedics Research | Spine Injuries in Sport

 

Authored by Stroe Alina Zorina*,

Abstract

The energy that is transferred through the collisions that occur in sports has the result of a number of critically harmed players every year. In the studies that have been made regarding to contact and noncontact sports it was showed that the most of sport related injuries of the spine are both soft-tissue injuries and self-limiting. The athletic injuries of the spine in a limited quantity have the outcome of significant neurological compromise. The result that appears after a soft tissue injury is the immobilization and the decrease of the performance. In the category of sports that are reported as „collision sports” are encountered the following: football, wrestling, and boxing, which can have results of acute traumatic lesions of the spine. These lesions have a distinct implication because of the common involvement of the cervical spine, that can cause a neurological deficit which targets all four members. Compressive type of stress injury is most commonly encountered in sports where the following elements are found: high body weight and important muscle contraction, such as football and weight lifting.The stress caused by the torsion appears in the throwing action, for example the javelin throwers, baseball players and golfers.

Keywords: Spine; Injury; Sport; Physical activity

Introduction

In particular, the promotion of sport is aimed at adolescents and young people with the aim of facilitating the harmonious development of the body and of discouraging obesity and its longterm consequences. In contrast, due to the exhaustive use of sports training in terms of intensity and volume, the practice of sports has conduced to an increased rate of acute and overuse injuries. The principal acute injuries in youth sports are sprains, strains, fractures, dislocations and contusions [1-5].

Young athletes are more prone to stress fractures and congenital predispositions to stress fractures. Young athletes can be affected by two basic types of injuries: acute injury as the result of single impact macrotrauma and overuse injury that appears after repetitive microtrauma of training.

The inconsistent variable that differentiates diagnosis, treatment and prognosis after spinal cord injury is related to the patient’s age, due to the biomechanical and biochemical characteristics that each age.

Discussion

intervertebral disc lesions

Injuries can be disc-located with the result of disc herniation, disc degeneration, and ultimately developmental stenosis.These are most commonly seen in the lumbar spine L4-L5 and L5-S1, but also a significant incidence is present in the cervical spine. A low frequency of intervertebral disc lessions occurs at the level of thoracic spine. Disc lesions are generated by flexion/rotation or weightlifting injury, but also hyperextension can produce cervical disc herniation at the level of cervical spine C3-C4. Intervertebral disc lesions produce axial pain and restricted spinal motion. The clinical subjective symptoms of radicular compression are pain in a dermatomal distribution, weakness, paraesthesia and numbness. Neurological deficit is secondary to nerve root or spinal cord compression [6-10].

Compression injuries that use the axial loading process can result from injuries in sports using the motor or boat. It is possible to dislocate the fracture by rotation and flexion at the cervical and lumbar spine.

In any sport in which one athlete falls on another, an athlete may suffer an asymmetrical load and may suffer a rotation injury of the thoracolumbar spine. The intervertebral disc is frequently affected by rotational and shearing actions. Initially the affected structural layers can be separated or the inner layers may break. During the process of weakening and breaking the layers, forces are applied to the outer layers. This mechanism may cause radial rupture of the intervertebral disc. During the passage of time, the disc can heal, but with the appearance of the change of the capacity of biomechanical function [11-14].

In the case of an athlete who has a type of spinal obstruction, for example spinal stenosis, and who exercises in exercises involving extension maneuvers, they may increase the already present compression of the neurological structures and may cause local and clinical structural aggravation. In the case of an athlete who has a type of nerve root tension, for example, disc herniation, practicing exercises that involve flexion may produce increased tension in the nerve already under tension and may increase clinical symptoms. In the natural evolution of radiculopathy resulting from a herniation of the disc, the back pain evolves to the localized pain predominantly in the lower limbs. This pain presents aggravating factors through actions that increase intraspinal pressure, such as coughing, sneezing and sitting for a long time. At the objective examination, the patient shows positive signs of nerve stretching.

The source of the radicular pain that does not correspond to the aforementioned description is the radicular pain caused by spinal stenosis. Spinal stenosis is usually absent with signs of positive nerve stretching, but has the characteristic history of neurogenic claudication (ie, foot pain produced by walking). The pain does not cease at the moment of stopping and is aggravated by the extension of the spine, being improved by flexion. The pain progresses from proximal to distal. In conclusion, lesions characteristic of athletes may have presentations in the form of pain in the sacroiliac joint and pain in the posterior superior iliac spine.

The most prevalent area in which it manifests is the pain mentioned in the year of the intervertebral disc and the neuromotor segment of the spine. Compared to the population, the degradation of the lumbar intervertebral discs of the athletes is related to the movements that require the increased strength of the athletes, the excessive loading of the spine and the increased training time, and especially in the athletes the recurrence rate is high.

Spondylolysis

Spondylolysis is a stress fracture which is located in the pars intraarticular. It is most prevalent in sports which demants repetitive hyperextension and rotation. Fast bowlers in cricket, pitchers in baseball, gymnasts, tennis players and weightlifters are susceptible to develop this lesion type. Themost frequent location of spondylolysis and spondylolisthesis is L5-S1. The incidence of spondylolysis and grade I spondylolisthesis in sports participants is high. In the long term, this condition is not considered to be a significant factor in the inability of the athletes to perform.The patient has the development of the following clinical subjective symptoms: severe low back pain, in the first stage unilateral and then bilateral that aggravates with extension/rotation of the spine.

The basic mechanisms of the production of the injuries in sport activities produce a combined force vector. Three common mechanisms of injury that need to be taken into consideration are: (l) the mechanism of compression or loading of the spine by weight; (2) torque or rotation which may result in shear forces in a more horizontal plane and (3) the tensile tension produced by excessive movement of the spine.

Motion sports that use traction action on the spine include gymnastics, ballet, dance, pole vaulting, high jumping.Some injuries result from direct hits. Certainly, in sports, such as football, injuries are associated with muscle contusions, muscle extensions, and ruptures of the fascia, ligaments, and sometimes muscles. In gymnastics, spondylolysis can be present through the hyperextension action. In ballet the lumbar strain (arabesque position) and spondylolysis can occur. The lesions of weightlifters consist of compressive injuries. In football can occur: transverse process fractures, disc injury and contusion from the impact with the helmet. In runners, the back pain is prevalent. The golfers often present back pain and disc disease. In tennis the back pain can appear.

Gymnastics

In gymnastics, the location of the most frequent stress fractures is at the spine level for 42% of the cases, followed by the lower extremity location for 35% of the cases and the upper extremity location for 23% of the cases. The fractures that have the cause of stress are located at the lumbosacral spine are named spondylolysis. Gymnasts typically develop stress fractures in the upper lumbar spine and these fractures may be present at multiple levelsThis kind of fracture occurs frequently as a result of the repetitive spine’s hyperextension, with the occurence mostly in: gymnastics, ballet, volleyball, diving and tennis.The gymnasts can present thoracic hyperkyphotic and lumbar hyperlordotic posture that predisposes these athletes to mechanical back pain. Studies have compared the incidence of spinal disc degeneration among elite and population gymnasts and revealed that the percentage of proffessional gymnast degeneration of the vertebral disc was 75%, and the general population was 31 %.

Aquatic sports

In aquatic sports, the main motion of the spine concerns the rapid contraction modification of the lumbar paravertebral muscles through the rapid flexion and extension movements associated with the dive. Also, lesions of the cervical spine and those of the wrist are also associated. Even if swimming and water exercises are part of the back rehabilitation programs, there is the possibility, especially in young swimmers, to suffer certain injuries, in swimming types, such as butterflies, which produce a strong flexion / extension of the lumbar spine. In the pursuit of a proper swimming strategy, the swimmer must control the tone and strength of his abdominal muscles to be able to protect his back during a strong movement.

Pole vaulting

Pole vaulting follows the same pattern that includes a maximum action of flexion/extension and muscle contraction. The range of motion of the lumbar spine has been documented with high speed photography from 40 degrees of extension to 130 degrees of flexion in 0.65 seconds. The important forces that are generated across the spine demand a lot of functional charge.

Weight lifting

This type of physical activity requires muscular strength, lifting and high body weight. The most common such sport is weight lifting.Almost 40% of the weightlifters complain about the lower back pain. A compressive injury of the spine is the risk of the movements of athletes that lift weights above their head because of the important forces that affect the lumbar spine.The weight lifting process commences with the spine in narrow posture of flexion and the athlete lifts using the legs. Important force of extension is applied in the hips and knees locations with the spine in a firmly balanced position. This stage of the lift demands the body to produce tremendous rigid immobilization of the spine in the power posture of minor flexion.In athletes who lift weights, there is an almost constant increase in lumbar lordosis due to lifting weights above the level of the head. The use of these positions is related to the formation of important forces of extension of the lumbar spine that bring into question the possibility of spondylolysis and spondylolisthesis. The presence of spondylolysis in weight lifters has been estimated at 30% and the incidence of spondylolisthesis has been estimated at 37%. Due to the presence of these factors, new training methods have been created, which highlight the need to insist on the flexibility of the body as a whole, through the general conditioning of the body.

Football

Football is a sport where the risks of unexpected, severe contacts on the lumbar spine are present. The risk of contusion or fracture at any level of the spine are present too. In a paticular violent touch: the impact from a helmet that is applied to the ribs cand produce rib fractures. An impact applied on the flank has the possibility of production renal contusions, retroperitoneal hemorrhages, fractures located at the transverse and spinal processes.

Running

Running is the type of sport that produces rigidity. The need for constant improvement of flexibility is vital for long distance runners. During the run, the athlete must maintain a constant body posture with significant muscle exertion for a quantitative period of time. The most common painful places for athletes are: lumbar spine, cervical spine, interscapular space and shoulders.

Golf

Golfers have the highest predisposition and the highest frequency of injuries in the spine, among all professional athletes, due to the fact that the golf practice technique involves applying a significant torsional force to the lumbar spine.

Javelin Throw

The javelin throw consists of an important force that is generated by the athlete that must change the body position from a hyperextended position to a full flexion forward through position. The abdominal muscular strength and rigidity generates the torque that implies the javelin’s throw. A injury in a javelin throw athlete through a rotatory lumbar spine injury is a totally incapacilitating injury that demands important care and correction.

Baseball

Torsional situations appear in pitchers and also in hitters. The throwers involve an important strength to be capable of transferring the force to the throwing arm. The strength of the trunk and the legs generates the throwing speed, and the arm ensures the fine resistance of control. Hitters need to initiate a violent lumbar rotation based on instantaneous ocular information and thus the role of the lumbar spine in the baseball bat begins with visualizing the ball. In case a hitter does not see the ball in time, the swing mechanism is changed.

The most common source of insults at this level is the observation of the late bile, which produces rotation with the hips in front of the shoulders, loss of parallelism of the shoulders and hips, and increased torsional tightening of the lumbar spine. The trunk should move fast as a solid unit, swinging the baseball bat.

Conclusion

Scientists support the theory that because training time, intensity and difficulty of performance athletes are close to the limits of the human body, the possibility of injury has increased greatly. In general, the incidence of lumbar disc herniation in athletes is much more prevalent than in the population, and at the onset of symptomatology, the degeneration of the detected disc is more advanced than that of the general public. Muscle strength, muscular endurance and muscle relaxation play an important role in preventing lumbar spine dysfunction. For example, the muscles of the posterior face of the legs originate from pelvic ischial tuberosity. In the event that these muscles are not optimally developed, they will apply forces that pull the posterior ischial tuberosity and will incline the posterior pelvis, forcing the lumbar spine to adopt a bent position by improper stretching of the back muscles, increasing the risk of protrusion of the cartilage of the intervertebral disc. Also, due to the optimal underdevelopment of the gluteal muscles and the tension in the back muscles, pelvic instability and back pain among athletes may occur.

The costs of the long-term health network for spinal cord injuries are a substantial economic complication. The effect from the social, but also economic point of view could be viewed from the point of view of the indirect costs of sports injuries such as absence from work and from the point of view of the long-term health repercussions, which are added to the costs. direct. An even moderate decrease in sports accidents is of great significance in the lives and health of athletes, especially young people and could have consequences on the long-term economic situation on healthrelated expenses. The addition of active prevention measures in the training methods of the athletes is necessary to increase the performance and reduce the risks of accidents and injuries. These measures should be considered as a whole multidisciplinary team made up of medical doctors, physical therapists, trainers and coaches, as well as the athletes themselves.

Studies conducted in the literature on the prevention of athletes’ injuries through well-structured training programs have had beneficial results. Increasing endurance is more important than increasing muscle strength in proactive preventive management of athletes’ injuries and, at the same time, increasing strength training of the back muscles, abdominal muscles and lower limb muscles to reduce the occurrence of back pain. The principle of beneficial exercise is to gradually increase the intensity and frequency, without causing pain. Reducing excessive repetitive movements must also be implemented, paying attention to the bending and turning movements, monitoring the intensity of the movements, strengthening the strength and basic softness of the muscles, and understanding the potential risk factors for player injury.

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