Iris Publishers- Open access Journal of Online Journal of Complementary & Alternative Medicine | Antioxidant Activity and Proximate Analysis of Alaagoal Ethanolic Extract in Gentamicin Toxicated Rats

 

Authored by Hala Elrayah Ahmed*

Abstract

Plants are the most important source of medicine to the mankind. Ancient and traditional verbal as well as documented sources are treasure of potential medicinal properties of plants. In the new era of science and technology there is increasing need to validate the claims of traditional knowledge database for safe, easily available, cheap, side-effect free healthcare provisions. Some species from the genus Fagonia are supposed to possess important medicinal properties. In this article the proximate analysis and antioxidant activity (In vivo) of Alaagoul (Fagonia cretica L) ethanolic extract was evaluated. The proximate analysis for the ethanolic extract of Alaagoul (Fagonia cretica L) demonstrated: Moisture 3.0%, Ash 14.0%, protein 27.84%, Ether extracts 2.3%, Fiber 19.0%, Nitrogen free extract 33.86%, Energy 238.6.The administration of Fagonia cretica L ethanolic extract followed by gentamicin improved the activity of catalase and super oxide dismutase.

Keywords: Alaagoul; Antioxidant; Proximate analysis; Fagonia cretica L

Introduction

Plants and herbs have provided natural remedies for human ailments from time immortal. As knowledge progressed, man selected different herbs for cure of different diseases and ailments. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimated that about 80% of the world’s population relies on traditional medicines for their primary health care. Most of the plants, which are used for various ailments, have not been properly investigated. About 30% of the pharmaceuticals are prepared from plants worldwide [1].

Alaagoul (Fagonia) is small, spiny, and erect, under shrubs, more and less granular, branches slander, terete, triate, glabrous. Leaves opposite, 1-3 foliate; petioles very variable in length, from 3 - 30 mm long, deeply striate, very slender; stipules 2 pairs of sharp slender thorns, sometimes exceeding 12 mm in length; leaflets linear, acute, sessile or with very short petiolules. It is branching herbs woody at the base, erect or prostrate [2]. Number of species like Fagonia cretica, Arabica, Bruguieri, Mysorensis, Indica, Schweinfurthii, Laevis, longispina etc. have been identified. Traditionally it is used in Sind and Afganistan as a popular remedy for fever among the hill people. The plant is given as a tonic and febrifuge, and in the Peshawar Valley it is given to children as a prophylactic against small- pox. The leaves and twigs are supposed to possess cooling properties. In the Ormara hills the plant is pounded and bound upon the swellings of the neck and for scrofula. At Saruna in Jhalawan it is pounded in water and strained; the liquid is rubbed all over the bodies of children when they get fever. In Kharan an infusion made with hot water is used as a bath in cases of fever. The plant is considered to cure for itch in the Las Bela State: and in the Levy tracts it is for that purpose pounded, mixed with milk, kept for three days and then rubbed all over the body [3]. Fagonia species were extensively studied by many workers regarding their medicinal uses, since these plants were antitumor, antioxidant, analgesic, astringent, febrifuge and prophylactic against small-pox agents. Species of Fagonia were also used for the treatment of cancer in the indigenous system, fever, asthma, urinary discharges, toothache, stomach troubles and kidney diseases. Species of Fagonia have been found to contain saponins, alkaloids, terpenoids, sterols, flavonoids, proteins and amino acids, coumarins, trace elements [4].

Antioxidants are group of chemicals that protect biological systems against the potential harmful effects of processes, or reactions that cause oxidation [5]. It was known that antioxidant in foods have many health benefits including prevention of various diseases associated with oxidative stress such as cancer, cardiovascular disease, neuro- degeneration and diabetes and others. However, there is a little knowledge of antioxidant activity in a variety of plants. There is strong evidence that reactive oxygen species including free radicals can lead to lipid peroxidation and oxidative stress which damage biological structures such as proteins, lipids and DNA [6]. They result in body ageing and chronic diseases such as heart disease, stroke, certain cancers, neurodegenerative diseases and lung disorders [7]. In general, the human body has its own natural antioxidant system to stand against free radicals using certain enzymes. It is believed that an intake of antioxidants reinforces the defense of human antioxidant system. Fruits, vegetables and spices are well known for their natural antioxidants. It has been found that high intake of fruits and vegetables has been associated with lower incidences of chronic diseases such as cancer and heart diseases [8]. Antioxidant activity of plants or fruits work in several mechanisms including free radical scavenging, hydrogen donation, singlet oxygen quenching, metal ion chelating and acting as a substrate for radicals such as super oxide and hydroxide.

Materials and Methods

Plant materials

Alaagoul Fagonia cretica L was collected from North Sudan as a whole plant. The plant material was taxonomically identified and authenticated by taxonomy expert at Herbarium of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Research Institute (MAPRI), National Center for Research (NCR), Khartoum, Sudan where the voucher specimen has been deposited.

Animals

Forty adult albino rats of either sexes weighing (100–120g) were divided into four groups each of 10 rats. The animals were either obtained from the experimental Animal house of the Central Veterinary Research Laboratory (Soba) and from the Faculty of Pharmacy University of Khartoum. They were housed at the experimental animal house at the Faculty of Pharmacy University of Khartoum. Animals were quarantined and observed for 7 days before the experiment. All animals were kept in aluminum laboratory cages; the animals were given the standard diet which is the normal pellet feed and freshwater ad libitum.

Administration of doses

After the adaptation animals were divided according to the weight into four groups each of 10 rats. Group I was given water and standard diet for 10 days and served as a control group. Group II was given gentamicin sulphate 80 mg/kg/d (i.p.) from days 6 to 10.Group III was given Alaagoul (Fagonia cretica L) extract 250 mg/kg/d orally for 10 days and 80 mg/kg/d gentamicin sulphate (GS) (i.p.) from day 6 to 10.Group IV was given Fagonia cretica L extract 500 mg/kg/d orally for 10 days and 80 mg/kg/d gentamicin sulphate (GS) (i.p.) from day 6 to 10.

Parameters

Blood samples from ocular vein were collected under light diethyl ether anesthesia into a sterile plain vacutainer tube at day 0, 5 and 10. Serum was separated by centrifugation for 15 minutes at 3000rpm and was kept under minus seventy percent to be tested for antioxidant.

Preparation of (alaagoul) Fagonia cretica L ethanolic extract

Ethanolic Extraction was carried out according to the method descried by [9]. Specific weight of each sample was grounded using mortar and pestle and extracted by soaking 80 % ethanol for about seventy two hours with daily filtration and evaporation. Solvent was evaporated under reduced pressure to dryness using rotary evaporator apparatus and the extract allowed to air till complete dryness.

Proximate analysis of alaagoul extract

Estimation of moisture: Moisture was estimated according to the method described by [10].

Estimation of Ash: Ash was estimated according to the method of [10,11].

Estimation of crude protein: Crude protein was determined according to the method described by [11,12].

Estimation of crude fat: The method used to estimate crude fat value was described by [11].

Estimation of crude fiber: The crude fiber estimation was done according to the method described by [11].

Estimation of nitrogen free extracts (NFE): NFE contents of the samples were calculated by subtracting the percentages of moisture, ash, crude protein, crude fat, and crude fiber from 100 as below:

NFE % = 100- (moisture % + ash % + crude protein % + crude fat % + crude fiber %).

Metabolite energy calculation: The metabolite energy was calculated according to equation described by [13].

Evaluation of antioxidant status in serum

Determination of catalase (CAT) in serum: Catalase was determined in sera samples using commercial kits (Catalase (CAT) assay kit (visible light), A007-1, Nanjing Jiancheng Bioengineering Institute, Nanjing, China. spectrophotometric method.

Determination of superoxide dismutase (SOD) in serum: Superoxide dismutase (SOD) was determined in sera samples using commercial kits (Superoxide dismutase (SOD) typed assay kit (Hydroxylamine method), A001-2, Nanjing Jiancheng Bioengineering Institute, Nanjing, China). spectrophotometric method.

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Iris Publishers- Open access Journal of Archives in Biomedical Engineering & Biotechnology | A Gargantuan Effort

 

Authored by Nuran M Kumbaraci*

Opinion

“Human-on-a-Chip” is an intricate experimental system designed to study an aspect of the human body under controlled conditions. The design of such a system requires the knowledge of the human body, biological systems and engineering to set-up and install regulated control systems to support living cells. Microfluidic devices provide dynamic conditions and keep cells alive with continuous monitoring to conduct specific experiments. However, the human body is a complex system of many cells. Scientists Sender, Fuchs and Milo from Weizmann Institute reported that the number of human cells in a 70 kg “reference man” is estimated to be about 30 trillion and the number of bacterial cells found throughout the body is about 39 trillion. These trillions of human and bacterial cells live together in the body in a coordinated fashion influenced by countless external and internal signals, hormones, cytokines, local responses and mediators. How easy will it be to design a system that includes these trillions of different cells and signals? Even though the microfluidic channels do provide layers of cells attached to a plastic substratum, the materials used are far-removed from the living world of the architecture of the microcirculation and capillary beds. The synthetic material commonly used is PDMS (polydimethylsiloxane) which has been explicitly shown to adsorb biomolecules. Thus, surface chemists can provide expertise to modify such surfaces or develop alternative materials for better compatibility with cells and less adsorption of molecules.

Researchers at the Wyss Institute, Harvard University developed microfluidic devices as “Human Organs-on-Chips” as an alternative means to model human diseases in vitro for the development of new drugs. Several “human-organs-on-chips” can be connected to investigate the interaction between different biological systems. These devices are coated with human cells from the organs and can be used to predict pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic (PK/ PD) responses to drugs in vitro. Microfluidic systems have multiple advantages. They are an excellent alternative to animal testing. Many animals are subjected to pain and distress during testing and some do not even survive until the end of the experiments. Animal experiments take a long time and require expensive animal facilities. Furthermore, animals do not provide an exact replica of humans! Thus, these systems can be used to model diseases and test various conditions or treatments. It is a heroic attempt to set-up a “Human-on-a-Chip” but how many questions can be addressed, studied or explored in one set-up or multiple connected set-ups? A student who had conducted research in this area once commented that the biological aspect of the problem was drowned in addressing the overwhelming problems associated with the engineering design and computerized monitoring systems needed to keep the cells alive and conduct the experiments.

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Iris Publishers- Open access Journal of Archives in Biomedical Engineering & Biotechnology | ET-traps-a Novel Therapeutic for Treatment of Neurological Disorders

 

Authored by Arjun Jain*

Abstract

Different neurodegenerative disorders affect millions of people around the world and currently there is no cure for them. Certain neurodegenerative conditions are associated with pathologically elevated Endothelin (ET)-1 levels. There are currently various drugs in use to block the ET system, but these are associated with various side effects. In this paper, the potential use of ET-traps is discussed, which provide a potent way of lowering the pathologically elevated ET-1 levels found in these different neurodegenerative disorders and are non-toxic for use.

Keywords: Endothelin-1; ET-traps; Neurodegenerative disorders; Multiple sclerosis; Alzheimer’s disease; Parkinson’s disease; Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis

Abbreviations: Amyloid Beta; AD: Alzheimer’s Disease; ALS: Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis; ET-1: Endothelin-1; BBB: Blood Brain Barrier; CBF: Cerebral blood flow; MS: Multiple Sclerosis; PD: Parkinson’s Disease

Introduction

The ET-traps are molecular constructs that have previously been shown to potently and significantly sequester endothelin (ET)-1 [1]. Further work then showed that the ET-traps effectively returned different markers of diabetes disease pathology back to control, non-disease levels [2,3].

Discussion

Increased ET-1 in neurodegenerative disorders

There are elevated levels of ET-1 in neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer’s disease (AD), Parkinson’s disease (PD), and Multiple Sclerosis (MS) [4]. It has previously been shown that increased levels of ET-1 in MS resulted in reduced cerebral blood flow (CBF) [5]; given that ET-1 is a potent vasoconstrictor [6], it is unsurprising that it can compromise CBF. Use of an ET-antagonist, such as Bosentan reversed certain markers of disease pathology in MS. CBF was significantly lower in patients with MS than in control subjects and increased to control values after administering bosentan. Therefore, the reduced CBF in MS appears to be mediated by ET-1, and ET-traps, which potently and significantly bind and reduce the levels of circulating ET-1, could become a potential therapy for MS.

In addition to the reduction in CBF caused by circulating ET- 1, the increase in ET-1 levels in the brain itself is caused by the release of ET-1 from astrocytes in brain lesions. It remains to be tested whether ET-traps can cross the blood–brain barrier (BBB). Previous work showed that not only the size but also the level of how hydrophobic a molecule is both determine whether a molecule would be able to cross the BBB [7]. Given that the ET-traps are both small in size (37.1 kDa) and are hydrophobic in nature (37.1%), it is likely that they would be able to cross the BBB. Furthermore, as has been previously reported [3], the ET-traps potently and significantly sequester increased ET-1 levels in the blood. This in turn would reduce the levels of the increased reactive white blood cells that freely cross the cerebral spinal fluid and BBB. The white blood cell count is increased by inflammation [8] and ET-1 is a potent inducer of inflammation [9]. This increase in inflammation is characterized by increases in the levels of reactive white blood cells [9] and systemic inflammation, which affects different organs in the body [10]. The various neurodegenerative disorders mentioned earlier are all associated with systemic inflammation. Thus, a tool such as ET-traps could have an efficacious effect by reducing pathologically elevated ET-1 levels.

In addition to MS, there are various studies showing an important role for systemic inflammation in the pathogenesis of AD. AD is a common cause of dementia, accounting for ~60–90% of all cases [11]. Different disease-modifying therapies for AD, such as immunotherapy against amyloid beta (Aβ), are now under investigation and have been tested in clinical trials, although with little success so far. Therefore, there is an urgent need to identify new therapeutics. Previous AD research using disease models and clinical studies has demonstrated a significant contribution of inflammation in general to pathological features and symptoms of AD.

Systemic inflammation is also an important pathological factor in PD [12,13]. Ferrari and Tarelli reported that systemic inflammation triggers exacerbation of damage in the brain in several neurodegenerative diseases, including PD [13]. Chiang et al. revealed that damage to the white matter of patients with PD is associated with systemic inflammation [12].

Another neurodegenerative disease associated with pathologically elevated ET-1 levels [14] is amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) which is a fast progressive and disabling neurodegenerative disease that is characterized by upper and lower motor neuron loss, leading to respiratory insufficiency and death after a few years [15]. There is currently no cure for this disease. Current treatments merely delay a patient’s disease progression. Given that ET-1 level is significantly elevated in ALS, perhaps the ETtraps that have been shown to significantly sequester the increased levels of ET-1, may be a cure for this debilitating and devastating disease. Previous in vivo work has also shown that the ET-traps have a positive effect on cardiovascular markers of ventricular function [3] and given that ALS leads to respiratory insufficiency, ET-traps may well help with this condition.

Conclusion

Given the increased levels of ET-1 in different neurodegenerative disorders and that this increased ET-1 is a cause of pathology in these diseases, ET-traps, which potently and significantly reduce the circulating levels of ET-1, would have a therapeutic effect in ameliorating disease pathology.

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Iris Publishers- Open access Journal of Animal Husbandry & Dairy Science | Requisite Intellect Needed in Africa’s Animal Husbandry to Increase Productivity

 

Authored by Mbassa GK*

Opinion

The world human population at 7.6 billion in 2020 is projected at 8.6b in 2030, 9.8b in 2050, increasing by 33% in least developed countries (UN Report 2017). Populations of 26 African countries will double, with Nigeria, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, Tanzania and Uganda being forefront, thus efficiency in agriculture is essential. Food production has increased worldwide but 50% of Africans do not get adequate amounts, even essentials like milk. In 2014 world milk production was 933,976 tons (t) condensed, 3,597,015t dried and 2,601,076t evaporated, Africa contributed only 1.5% (13,826t), 1.4% (48,564t) and 0.8% (19,776t) respectively FAO [1] despite having 23.2% (346,475,266) of 2017 world’s 1,491,687,240 cattle. This low milk production trend in Africa notifies that Sustainable Development Goals 1 to end poverty and 2 to end hunger will not be achieved by 2030 and most likely all the 17 goals. This paper gives opinion on pathways to increase animal productivity.

Livestock Farming Challenges in Africa

Livestock farming in Africa is affected by many factors centred on inputs; capital, land, technology, animal breeds, management, workforce, intellect, interest, feeds and feeding processor, water, pastures & fodder, fertilizers, tools, health plans, medicines, vaccines, pesticides, medicators, machinery, product processors, policies, markets and law compliance Njonge [2], Asizua [3]. Pastoralism and agro-pastoralism (APP), the dominant farming systems Ndambi [4], Guadu and Mangistie [5], FAO [6] constitutes 90% of dairy ruminant population. In Tanzania 94% of livestock population are under APP (URT, Min. Liv. & Fish. Dev. Report 2019), 6% are under smallholders and large farms. Cattle under APP yield 0.5-1 litre (L)/ animal/day Kurwijira & Henricksen [7] thus the country produces 54.8 million Litres milk/annum. Dairy farms with cross-and pure breeds produce 2-5% of milk on market, 95-98% share filled by imports. Annual per capita milk consumption is 47L, against 200L world level. Generally, in Africa genetic improvement has not been widely implemented to transform beef and dairy production Opoola [8], Ojango [9]. Livestock farming receives inadequate government support on capital, technology and markets. Animals are of low productivity genes. Genetically high producer exotic breeds, their infrastructure, housing, health, technology and management needs are unaffordable by ordinary families. Diseases of animals include parasites, fungi, protozoa, ehlichia, virus and bacteria. Qualitative and quantitative deficiencies in animal feeds are most significant Mbwambo [10]. Markets for live animals, milk, meats and products are highly unreliable, making livestock farming risky, thus left for illiterate poor communities with no other income sources, who rear animals on APP on general lands without investing anything (low input low output), unable to produce adequate milk, export meat, leather & leather goods. Therefore, APP is claimed to be economical in arid and semiarid lands Bollig [11], however, human population growth has severely constrained unrestricted grazing. Strong cultural bonds in some pastoralists force them to segregate themselves from country governance, development and modern farming, wanting to be left alone, gaining sympathies from some groups Mattee & Shem [12], Tenga [13], Mgongo [14], Galvin [15], and this complicates the transformation from APP to modern profitable farming. Sustained unrestricted pastoralism, however, is causing many fatal land conflicts between pastoralists, and crop farmers, forests & wildlife areas, urban & villages Le Meur [16] , Kushoka [17], James [18], Massoi [19], Mbonde [20], Mwambashi [21], Massay [22]. Vision is lacking on scenarios of grazing in general land without investing to regenerate feeds and water. Seeking for solid practical information on modernizing livestock farming in Africa is, therefore, inevitable.

Pathways to Enhancing Livestock Productivity in Africa

Sudan, Kenya, South Africa, Egypt, Morocco, Algeria and Ethiopia are reported to have enhanced milk production Louw [23] but many countries have not. It is highly unlikely that Africa will achieve SDG1 and SDG2 within next decade, unless radical strategic livestock farming modernization plans are set and implemented. Livestock productivity in APP system is too low to adequately supply growing human populations and, the land is also shrinking because of increasing users. In order to sustainably ascend beyond APP, modernizing livestock farming is necessary, achievable by raising intelligence to generate people interested in farming. Many African countries have plenty of arable land to produce feeds and water using available efficient modern technologies. Fights over land and water are due to unwillingness of people to think, plan, invest and work their plans; instead they opt for minimal intelligence, and follow inherited living styles from ancestors, who did not have knowledge and technology.

Increasing productivity of livestock production in Africa requires strong investment, infrastructure, innovations FAO [24]. The factors steering shift from APP to modern farming are population growth (need food), climate change, decreasing free grazing land, expanding milk, meat and products markets, Africa’s realization of self-development, widening university education, growing middle-income earners, increasing demands for high quality foods, raising security, safety, health, quality life, living standards, better technology, markets, good animal breeding and disease control technologies, easing management by farm automation, digital knowledge, artificial intelligence and use of drones and networking. The two binding actors in modernizing livestock farming are people and governments [25]. People must modernize themselves, move out of past cultures and venture into high-value production. Governments must identify people interested to invest in livestock production, give them loans and grants; young university graduates (Namibian model), young changing APPs and others. Governments should develop markets, create export opportunities, connect farms and markets, and utilize opportunities in digital technologies and artificial intelligence. Governments should ensure that all children born have homes, none should wander in jungles following animals.

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Iris Publishers- Open access Journal of Current Trends in Civil & Structural Engineering | ASPDIN: An Expert System for the Design of Different Types of Concrete

 

Authored by Osvaldo Cairó Battistutti*

Abstract

Expert systems are designed to solve complex problems by reasoning with and about specialized knowledge like an expert. The design of concrete is a complex task that requires expert skills and knowledge. Even when given the proportions of the ingredients used, predicting the exact behavior of concrete is not a trivial task, even for experts, because other factors that are hard to control or foresee also exert some influence over the final properties of the material. This paper presents some of our attempts to build a new expert system that can design different types of concrete (hydraulic, bacterial, cellular, lightweight, high-strength, architectural, etc.) for different environments. The system also optimizes the use of additives and cement, which are the most expensive raw materials used in the manufacture of concrete..

Keywords: Expert systems; Knowledge modeling; Knowledge acquisition; Design of concrete; Industrial applications

Introduction

By the middle of the last century, taking advantage of the rise of computing and the emergence of artificial intelligence (AI), people began to think about solving complex problems that required knowledge, intelligence and reasoning, using the computer. The possibility of including thought and reasoning in a machine woke up the euphoria of the researchers of that time. One of the fields of AI that relates thinking, logic, reasoning and knowledge, is that of expert systems (for design, diagnosis, planning, etc.). Expert systems are designed to solve complex problems by reasoning with and about specialized knowledge, like an expert. Clearly, expert systems are the most mature and widely used commercial application coming out of artificial intelligence. Thousands of expert systems have been developed worldwide and applied to different knowledge domains, such as finance, manufacturing, industries, management, airline scheduling, customer services, and military design [1-3]. Expert systems in industry are interesting because they offer four major advantages with respect to a human expert: a) increased distribution of expertise. They allow having any number of experts (copies of the software) in any place at the same time; b) longevity. Their lifetime is practically infinite; c) objectivity. They are never influenced by environmental factors that may hinder their decision-making capabilities, such as hasty decisions, emotions, cost of material, competitive factors, etc.; and e) cost. They can be used 24 hours a day, 365 days a year at no additional cost. On the other hand, the main disadvantage of these knowledge-based systems is the well-known knowledge engineering bottleneck: the knowledge acquisition process, which implies the transformation of tacit knowledge—which resides in the heads of experts—into explicit knowledge. To solve this major problem, which is also key to this project, we use the KAMET II Methodology of Cairó & Guardati [4]. This methodology represents a modern approach to creating diagnosis-specialized knowledge models that can be run on Protégé 2000, the open source ontology editor and knowledgebased framework; for details see Noy et al. [5].

This paper presents some of our attempts to build a new expert system that brings together and includes all of these ideas. Aspdin-named in honor of Joseph Aspdin, who was a British cement manufacturer who obtained the first patent for Portland cement in 1824-is an expert system that focuses on the intelligent design of different types of concrete: hydraulic, bacterial, cellular lightweight, high strength, architectural, etc. The system also optimizes the use of additives and cement, which, besides being the most expensive raw materials used in the manufacture of concrete, when employed in certain types of concrete add a lot of complexity to the decisionmaking process in terms of achieving the desired workability, mechanical strength, and durability (permeability, weathering, shrinkage, cracking, etc.). The quality of concrete depends precisely on the proportions of cement, additives, water, and air, considering the type of concrete that is being designed and the environment in which it will be used, see Arioz et al. [6]. In Mexico, companies like Cemex, Apasco, Cruz Azul, and Moctezuma have hundreds of manufacturing plants that each day produce about 1,000 cubic meters of concrete, where each cubic meter weighs about 2,400 kg. The per capita consumption in emerging countries is currently 400 kg per person per year. To illustrate the large size of cement production in these companies, recently Cemex, which is among the three major world producers of cement (1: Lafarge, 2: Holcim, 3: Cemex, 4: Heidelberg Cement, 5: Italcementi), signed various agreements to: a) provide 27,000 m3 of ready-mix concrete for the Airbus-350 long-range, wide-body, jet airliner assembly facilities near the southwestern city of Toulouse, France; b) provide over 30,000 m³ of different types of specialty ready-mix concrete for a bridge which crosses the Llobregat River near the Barcelona airport in Spain, c) provide 40,000m³ of specialty ready-mix concrete for the construction of the Baluarte Bicentennial Bridge in the Northern Mexican states of Sinaloa and Durango (Baluarte is one of the world’s tallest, 390mts, and most complex bridge mega-structures); d) supply 48,000 cubic meters of ready-mix concrete for the new construction of the Kaiserschleuse Bremerhaven, in Germany, one of the largest lock projects in Europe; e) provide 250,000 cubic yards of ready-mix concrete for the more than US$1 billion Port of Miami project in south Florida; and f) supply over 500,000 tons of cement for a major expansion of the Panama Canal. An expert system for the intelligent design of concrete would undoubtedly be a valuable tool for world-class companies like this. Aspdin can design different types of concrete for different environments, compare the results with those obtained by human experts, show the reasoning followed to reach the solutions it produces, and answer questions justifying its reasoning and conclusions.

The following section of this paper describes the KAMET II methodology used in Aspdin to model the knowledge acquired from multiple knowledge sources. Section 3 discusses the design of concrete and why this is such a difficult task. Section 4 is a description of the Aspdin system, its implementation, and architecture. Section 5 presents an analysis of how Aspdin could evolve from an academic prototype to be used in a beneficial manner in an industrial setting. Section 6 presents some conclusions about the project.

The KAMET II Methodology

The knowledge acquisition (KA) process does not involve mining from the expert’s head and writing rules for building knowledge-based systems (KBS), as it was considered twenty years ago when KA was often confused with knowledge elicitation, and modern engineering tools did not exist. The KA process has changed since then. It should be considered a cognitive process that involves both dynamic modeling and knowledge generation activities. KA should be seen as a spiral of epistemological and ontological content that grows upward by transforming tacit knowledge into explicit knowledge, which in turn becomes the basis for a new spiral of knowledge generation; for details see Cairó & Guardati [4]. Knowledge undoubtedly is a fluid mix of framed experience, values, expertise, and insight that can be useful and applied to solve a problem. However, we have a well-known problem (the design of concrete) which on the other hand is extremely difficult to solve. Knowledge is often tacit, residing in the minds of individuals, and therefore difficult to make explicit. That is the reason we use the KAMET II methodology. It represents a modern approach to building diagnosis-specialized knowledge models that can be run with Protégé-2000, the open source ontology editor and knowledge-based framework [5].

The KAMET II life-cycle model (LCM), shown schematically in Figure 1, provides a graphical framework for managing the knowledge acquisition process. The graphical framework also helps to set up and facilitate ways to characterize and organize knowledge acquired from multiple knowledge sources, share knowledge, implement the required actions, review the project situation, identify risks when objectives are not reached, monitor project progress, and check quality control; for details see Cairó & Guardati [4]. In fact, KAMET II is based on the search for the efficient transformation of tacit knowledge into explicit knowledge, see Sun et al. [7]. The KAMET II life cycle consists of four welldefined stages: the strategic planning of the project, initial model building, feedback model building, and final model building. Each stage involves a process of knowledge transformation (Figure 1).

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Iris Publishers- Open access Journal of Textile Science & Fashion Technology | The Role of External, Internal Influences In Consumers’ Online Shopping Intentions

 

Authored by Maria Sufi*

Abstract

The e-commerce industry in Pakistan has seen exceptional development in the past few years. This growth has been fuelled up by the rapid adoption of technology, improving standards of living, and an increasingly young population, besides increasing access to the Internet through broadband and the use of smartphones. The purpose of this paper is to narrow this knowledge gap by examining the impact of environmental and motivational factors on consumers’ online shopping intentions in Pakistan. By using the structural equational model, this study applies the concept of the Stimulus-Organism-Response paradigm, with the combination of the Technology Acceptance Model. The proposed research model examined through a sample of 345 online shoppers to explain the factors that affect their online shopping intention. The results show the significance of the external effect of environmental stimulus, and internal motivational factors significantly affect the organism process, containing perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and perceived enjoyment. Perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and perceived enjoyment affect consumers’ online shopping intentions.

Keywords: SOR paradigm; TAM model; Inner motivational factors; Shopping intentions

Introduction

The recent decade has witnessed the rapid expansion of e-commerce. This expansion has been an outcome of numerous advantages derived by the early adopters of an e-commerce system, for example, an e-commerce industry of Pakistan was $15 Million in 2014 and US$ 60-100 million (2015), showing an immense growth trend over the last several years [1]. This growth has been fuelled by the rapid adoption of technology, improving standards of living, an increasingly young population and economically advancing middle class, besides increasing access to the Internet through broadband and use of smartphones and tablets. In light of the above facts, the e-commerce market of Pakistan is very lucrative for foreign investment in the online business.

Previous studies on e-commerce have empirically examined online shopping intentions [2-6] traditional mall shopping [7], and mobile shopping [8,9] the emotional influence of online buying [8], online buying motivation [11], and the effects of hedonic and utilitarian intentions on user behaviour Lin & Lu, 2015) [12,13]. They established that consumers’ online buying intentions are involved and affected by environmental factors.

Considering that the online shopping intentions are selfevaluated sentiment of enjoyment and an effect of perceived ease of use (PEU) and perceived usefulness (PU), examining the adoption of online shopping intentions in emerging markets (like Pakistan) from a psychological viewpoint is significant. In this perspective, the Stimulus-Organism-Response (SOR) paradigm [14] gives a structured way to investigate the effects of high-tech elements as internal/external environmental stimuli on consumers’ experiences towards online shopping. This study shed light on consumers online shopping intentions through the proposed model, which considers system and service quality as external and utilitarian, hedonic shopping orientation as internal environmental stimuli; perceived usefulness perceived ease of use, and perceived enjoyment as the person’s inner organism changes; and online shopping intention as the response. With this proposed model, online shopping intentions in emerging economies can be adequately described in this study. This study makes a significant contribution to scholars and practitioners in emerging markets dealing with e-commerce.

Literature Review

Online shopping intention

Consumer’s online shopping behaviour is also called internet buying/shopping behaviour. Online buying behaviour has a direct affiliation with these aspects, such as information characteristics, logistics support, e-stores, websites’ technological characteristics, product characteristics, and homepage presentation. According to previous studies, the online shopping experience offers consumers both utilitarian and hedonic shopping orientations [15-17]. Utilitarian shopping orientations (USO) arise when the buying trip achieves specific usage requirements, reflecting nonemotional, cognitive, a goal-oriented, and a goal-oriented result [4]. So, the shopping beliefs are either external or internal, where the internal hedonic orientation indicates the drives of leisure, fun, and enjoyment. In contrast, the external utilitarian value is linked with well-designed aspects of buying. Hedonic shopping orientation (HSO) shows buying’s prospective entertaining and emotive worth. It can be directed by improved arousal, participation, escapism, fantasy, and emotive features of the buying [4,41].

SOR framework

SOR paradigm is widely used in earlier studies on online consumers’ behaviour [18,19]. For example, Parboteeah, et al. [20] investigated the effects of mood and task-related nodes on a webpage of consumers’ emotional and cognitive practices and also their successive online shopping behaviour. Eroglu, et al. [21] studied the applicability of the S-O-R paradigm to the atmospheric abilities of virtual retailing showed that the buyers’ levels of participation and atmospheric responsiveness mediate the link among environmental signs and shopping effects (e.g., time and money spent, site revisit). Wang, et al. [22] established that the association between web athletics, online shopping, satisfaction, and perceived quality of service on the bases of the SOR paradigm. Mckinney, et al. [23] used the SOR paradigm for the determination of customers’ inner motivations for online buying varies and that these drives have a significant influence on buyer satisfaction.

In line with Kim, et al. [24] and Hsu, et al. [25], this study reveals that the quality of a webpage is a significant stimulus in the online shopping environment. This research follows the “DeLone and McLean Model of Information Systems Success” [26] to determine the quality of a webpage through “system and service quality,” defined as “the degree to which users believe that the overall service and system performance meets their expectations” [27]. Further to these qualities, the quality of information is a significant aspect of quality [28,29]. From the perspective of the online social system, information quality “reflects the accuracy, comprehensiveness, and timeliness of information provided by mobile social network service providers” [30].

Both PU and PEU are the key components of the famous Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) [31]. In line with Hong, et al. [32] and Hew, et al. [33] these two concepts are key to clarifying consumer behaviour in the studies related to the adoption of new technology. In recent times Fu, et al. [25] employed perceived usefulness in the perspective of online purchase intention to clarify the intention to online buy a movie ticket, while Moslehpour, et al. [34] employed both constructs in the perspective of e-purchase intentions of the Taiwan nationals. They suggested that both concepts could forecast user intention. Due to the importance of perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness in forecasting customer behaviour and their accordance with an online buying perspective, they are supposed to be a decent replacement for consumers’ cognitive responses in this study.

In contrast, PE is considered based on Motivation Theory. According to KY Lin, et al. [35], Hew, et al. [35], and Deci [36], “the motivations in human behaviour can be categorized into intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.” Fred D, et al. [37] applied the same theory in the framework of information technology. They state that “humans are extrinsically motivated to commit an action when the performance of such action could achieve valued outcomes (e.g., improving job performance), whereas they are intrinsically motivated to commit an action when they are interested in the performance of the said action, rather than the outcomes. From their study, they conceptualized perceived usefulness as a form of extrinsic motivation and perceived enjoyment as a form of intrinsic motivation”. Pantano, et al. [38] applied these ideas of Motivation Theory. They explained that with three other TAM variables, perceived enjoyment is a key motive for consumers’ intentions towards online shopping. Following this opinion, it is probable that consumers’ inner motivation could be a related concept that utilities as a proxy for their affective responses.

Research Model and Hypothesis

System and service quality (SSQ)

Sang, et al. [27] described that the quality of a system and service is significantly linked with consumers’ opinions about new technology. As online shopping platforms provide products and services to consumers’ through their online systems, SSQ works as a significant external stimulus that affects shoppers’ affective and cognitive responses. Ahn, et al. [39] described in their study regarding online shopping that SSQ performs as the ancestor for PU, PEU, and PE. Moreover, the impact of SSQ on consumers’ online shopping intentions has been better cited under the environs of online social systems [27,40]. Likely, it is supposed that the affirmative view of SSQ of online shopping platforms will initiate positive affective and cognitive responses by consumers’. Thus, we propose the following:

H1a. System and service quality positively influence consumers’ perceived usefulness.

H1b. System and service quality positively influence consumers’ perceived ease of use.

H1c. System and service quality positively influence consumers’ perceived enjoyment.

Utilitarian shopping orientation (USO)

Holbrook, et al. [34] consumption model focused on the significance sought in the course of ingestion practice may be inclined by individual variances. According to Babin, et al. [15] “a utilitarian (economic) shopping orientation entails the tendency to seek instrumental value (e.g., saving time or effort),” while they always try to reduce time spent and effort in search and purchasing of a product [41]. The interactivity of a webpage is also perceived as proposing utilitarian sides of reducing effort and time, risk, and growing chances of searching a better substitute [42]. Webpages like Taobao, daraz.pk, and specialized online shopping apps offer the utilitarian factors of ease and information related to products/ services [42]. Several studies have emphasized that utilitarian orientation drives consumers’ usage behaviour [15,16,43]. Online utilitarian buyers are likely with an emphasis on the functional feature of the online experiences, for example, usability, price, quality, and other buying related aspects [40,41]. Li H, et al. [44] proposes more research regarding the influence of individual variances, for example, how the available information is being treated while online shopping.

Both PU and PEU reveal the utilitarian features of online buying [45,46]. Therefore, in this study, we investigate the link among PU, PEU, and USO as individual variances. We generate:

H2a. Utilitarian shopping orientation positively influences consumers’ perceived usefulness.

H2b. Utilitarian shopping orientation positively influences consumers’ perceived ease of use.

Hedonic shopping orientation (HSO)

According to Babin, et al. [15], a hedonic (fun) shopping orientation demands the propensity to pursue practical worth (e.g., fun). Numerous studies have emphasized that hedonic orientation drives consumers’ usage behaviour [4,21,41]. Hedonic shoppers involved in looking for products, enjoy their experience of shopping, and taking shopping as relaxation. Online shopping gives the hedonic aspect [48,45]. Previous studies explored that individual variances play a significant role in the way how technology is being used [45,49,50]. Lee et al. [45] proposed further study about the influences of individual variances, e.g., information treating chic while online shopping. Hedonic shopping values may influence consumers’ online shopping intentions. PE shows the hedonic traits of online buying. Therefore, in online shopping studies, hedonic characteristics can be considered.

Fenech, et al. [51] studied the special effects of hedonic buying orientation on perceived ease and usefulness in an online trading adoption scenario. Though, they did not find any positive effects of hedonic orientation on both perceived ease of use or usefulness for selling through webpages. In their research, Fenech, et al. [51] did not consider “perceived enjoyment,” which is a recreational fact and may link with the hedonic buying orientation relatively than perceived ease and value, which are utilitarian factors. Perceived enjoyment replicates the hedonic facets of online purchasing. Hence, we hypothesize as follows.

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