Authored by Paola A Magni
People of different cultures bury their dead in different ways, based on religious beliefs, historical rituals, or public health requirements. In Italy, cremation is still a limited practice compared to entombment and inhumation. Accordingly with the law, a buried body can be moved to the cemetery ossuary only if skeletonized. Generally, complete skeletonization occurs within 40 years following burial, but sometimes the body may mummify, or it may turn into adipocere. Globally, today burial space is limited with cemeteries facing a growing need for both burials and entombments. The present study considered the thanatological, taphonomical, anthropological, microbiological and geochemical examination of 408 human bodies exhumed from grave pits and stone tombs located in two cemeteries in Parma, Italy. Intrinsic and extrinsic factors associated with the process of the decomposition of such bodies were documented in order to identify which factors promote or reduce the time needed for skeletonization. Overall, the aim of this study was to improve the management of the body turnover in cemeteries, providing recommendations for cemetery management and turnover planning, with the goal of avoiding extra costs that may be attributed to the family and the State. The results of this study show that inhumation in burial grounds and soils with a high percentage of sand and gravel promote decomposition and skeletonization, whereas entombments inside stone tombs and the presence of stone slabs on the ground covering burials, aid in the formation of adipocere, slowing down the decomposition process.
Keywords: Inhumation; Entombment; Forensic taphonomy; Adipocere
Introduction
Around the world, burial practices are promoted in the attempt to demonstrate respect for the dead, to bring closure to the deceased’s family, to help reaching the afterlife, to return the remains to the cycle of life or to preserve the body for future use. In an attempt to do this, people of different cultures bury their dead in many alternate ways, in accordance with religious beliefs, historical rituals, or public health requirements [1]. In general, human remains are a) buried in the earth to decompose naturally (natural burials e.g. memorial reefs, mushroom burials, tree pod burials, resomation); b) be preserved for the years to come (e.g. mummification, embalming, inhumation, entombment, cryonics); c) to skip the decomposition process completely (e.g. cremation). As well, some people donate their bodies to science, and such remains may be preserved for anatomical studies in Universities or for decomposition studies at anthropology research facilities [2]. In Italy, within the 15384 cemeteries present in the country, and according to a 2007 survey, the percentage of entombments and inhumations were 58% and 32% respectively, while cremation was only 10%, compared to the European average of 36% [3].From 2014 to 2018, the choice of cremation in Italy has increased from 19,71% to 23%, while the European average remains around 38% [4,5]. Today, many countries are facing the problem of cities running out of space to bury their dead, and several solutions have been considered (e.g. relocation of the bodies, multi-story burial space, green burials) [6,7]. In Italian cemeteries, exhumations are performed throughout the year to maximize the shortage of space in existing cemeteries. According to the present law (Regolamento di Polizia Mortuaria [8]) inhumations and entombments are subjected to an exhumation turnover at 10, 20 or 40 years, depending on the circumstances of the specific case (e.g. following a request by the family or at the prosecutor’s discretion in a forensic investigation). Until the second half of the last century, human remains exhumed after such periods were generally completely skeletonized, and bones were collected and secured in the cemetery ossuary. In recent times, due to the use of modern types of coffins, the natural decomposition process has slowed down.
As a consequence, after the planned turnover time, the remains are often still in an advanced stage of decay. In such cases, the family of the deceased that is not skeletonized will have to choose between cremation or re-inhumation of the remains. Costs can be significant. If there is no family or if the family is not able to afford it, then the cost for re-inhumation or cremation of the remains will be covered by local government. In such cases, the family will sign a disinterest document and will not be notified about the body’s treatment or future location. According to the Italian Regolamento, only coffins can be used for inhumation or entombment of human remains [8]. The Regolamento also states that bodies destined for transport and entombment must be placed in two coffins, the inside one made of metal (usually zinc), and the external coffin is typically made of wood with metal edges where the top and the bottom part seal [8]. The outer part of the coffin is then sealed via welding.
When a body is transported during the warm seasons, an anti-putrefactive treatment with formaldehyde is applied to the remains, another factor that will retard decomposition. Regarding entombment, the tomb must be watertight and airtight, which is usually achieved using bricks and mortar. Inhumation pits must be at least 2 m deep and at least 0.50 m from other pits. Pathways between pits must be equipped with water draining systems. When a secondary inhumation is required, the zinc coffin – if present – can be removed to facilitate the skeletonization process. As an alternative, if the zinc coffin is not removed, the metal must be breached for the same purpose. The Regolamento does not specify the number or the size of these breaches, but such breaches are simply made using the tip of the shovel during the process of the re-inhumation. A total of 5-15 breaches are commonly made with each breach being of an opening of approximately 15x3 cm.
The present study considered the biological and taphonomical analyses of 408 human bodies exhumed from two cemeteries located in Parma, Italy. Subjects were deceased between 1920 and 1989 and were exhumed from grave pits (338 individuals) and stone tombs (70 individuals). In these two cemeteries, the turnover time is 20 years for exhumation from grave pits, and 40 years for exhumations from stone tombs. All 408 bodies were assessed on their decomposition status which included intrinsic factors (factors related to the nature of the body itself) and extrinsic factors (factors related to the environment in which the decomposition process occurred).
The present study provides the first set of data attempting to understand the variables influencing decomposition in cemeteries and identifies the geochemical and anthropological variables responsible for the different decomposition processes in the Parma environment. Results of this study will help improve the management of the body turnover in city cemeteries and provide some fundamental information on how to plan cemeteries for the future, based on the nature of the burial environment. A correct protocol for when cemeteries should be turned over will translate into relevant savings for public and private finances. More significantly, families may be able to avoid any distress caused by post-exhumation decisions.
Materials and Methods
This study considered the anthropological, taphonomical and microbiological analyses of 408 human bodies exhumed from two cemeteries located in Parma, Italy. Bodies from cemetery “La Villetta” (44°79’00’’N 10°31’43’’W) were exhumed from coffins buried in separate grave pits located in a green area labelled D5 (Figures 1&2). Bodies from cemetery “Marore” (44°77’00’’N 10°35’52’’W) were recovered from coffins individually placed in stone tombs (Figures 1&2). The exhumations of the bodies took place between April-May 2008 and October-November 2008, respectively. All buried bodies were exhumed using the typical archaeological excavation procedure [9]. An ad hoc spreadsheet was produced to describe and assess the remains. Prior to the exhumation, the families of the deceased were notified of the procedure, as it was within their rights to attend. In regard to cemetery “La Villetta”, beside the analyses of the human remains, a geotechnical analysis of the burial ground was performed. Results of the anthropological and geotechnical analyses of D5 were compared with the results of a similar assessment performed in 2007 on 384 bodies exhumed from other green areas of the same cemetery, marked as D3 (188 bodies) and D6 (196 bodies). In these areas the lawn was partially covered with stone slabs, whereas area D5 was only lawn.Assessment
Following exhumation, the bodies were examined using forensic pathology and taphonomy practices [10,11]. Each body was categorized as total skeletonization, partial skeletonization, mummification or corification/adipocere [12]. Of the many possible taphonomical assessments available in the present literature [11,13], this study deferred to the model of Carlson and Steele (1992), and considered four variables:1. The object of the analyses, e.g. full/partial remains at different stages of decomposition [14,15].
2. Location of the disposal, e.g. soil surface or burial.
3. Physical or biological factors affecting the decomposition process, e.g. temperature, humidity, bacterial activity.
4. Cultural factors e.g. cause of death, corpse transport, embalment.
Furthermore, this study considered the following intrinsic and extrinsic factors that may have affected the decomposition process:
a) Personal information: age at death, drug treatments during life, cause of death, if known, and considering the Italian and European privacy policy [16,17],
b) Location of the burials and the tombs within the cemeteries.
c) Depth of the burial pit.
d) Type and characteristics of the burial ground, via geotechnical analyses.
e) Type of coffin: construction material, structure (simple or double), type of sealing.
f) Garments and upholsteries classified into natural fibers (e.g. cotton, wool and linen) and synthetic fibers.
g) Presence of artifacts such as prosthesis and dentures.
Biological specimens were collected only from bodies exhumed from stone tombs, as the majority of the inhumed bodies were completely skeletonized. From five random bodies entombed in 1964, 1965, 1967 and 1989, a sample of soft tissue (10x5x3cm of skin, fat and muscle of a limb) was collected for microbiological analyses. Microbiological analyses were performed in order to determine if there was any difference in microbial populations within bodies entombed for different periods of time. Each sample was analyzed as follows:
1) Microscopic examination with Gram staining.
2) Tissue culture, after tryptose broth enrichment in CO2 at 37 °C.
3) Tissue culture in anaerobiosis at 37 °C.
4) Tissue culture for the presence of molds and yeasts at 25°C and 37°C.
API® (Analytical Profile Index) 20E BioMérieux was used as a biochemical panel for the identification and the differentiation of the microorganisms.
Statistical analyses
Data obtained from the 2 cemeteries were analyzed by multivariate analyses associated with contingency tables taking into consideration the type of burials (grave pit and stone tombs), the intrinsic and extrinsic variables (type and number of coffins, burial time, decomposition status, presence of garments, upholsteries and body artefacts) and the number of bodies. These were considered as percentage categories (0-10%, 10-30%, 30-60%, 60-90%, 90-100%) The effect of the type of soil (soil composition and permeability) was considered only for the grave pits and compared with the information from the geochemical assessment performed in 2007. The effect of the microbiome on the decomposition process was only considered for the stone tombs. The level of significance was set at P<0.05. Calculations were performed using IBM SPSS Statistics 22 statistical software package. The effect of personal information (e.g. age at death, cause of death, ante mortem diseases), conservative body treatments, and secondary inhumation/entombments (for the stone tombs) were not considered in this study as such information were too vague or incomplete to perform a robust statistical analysis.Results
Grave Pits
Cemetery “ La Villetta ”- A total of 338 bodies deceased between 1920 and 1989 were recovered from coffins buried in individual grave pits in D5 area (Figures 1-3). The cemetery file archive detailed that 73 (21.60%) of the total number of exhumed bodies were secondary inhumations. These bodies where deceased before 1987, and the inspection at the time of the first exhumation revealed that the remains lacked enough decomposition to be transferred to the ossuary. At the end of the present exhumation, only 5 (1.50%) of the 338 exhumed bodies required reburial or cremation, because of the lack of decomposition. Four of these bodies were reburied in 1988 and one in 1989. For these 5 bodies, the secondary inhumation had no effect on the skeletonization process (P>0.05). In comparison, of the 384 bodies exhumed from D3 and D6 area, an higher percentage required secondary inhumation or cremation (14.84%, N=157). In particular, 53 bodies in D3 (28.20%, of the 188 bodies in total) and 104 bodies in D6 (53.10% of the 196 bodies in total). The decomposition pattern was found to be statistically different between the D5 and D3-D6 areas (P<0.05).Personal information
The majority of the bodies belonged to adults (99.82%, N=334), the four remaining were juveniles, between 10 and 18 years of age. The causes of death were mostly natural, while a few were reported as violent (drowning, car accident, suicide). In case of natural death by cancer, the average duration of radio- and/or chemotherapy was reported to be about one year before death, according to information given by relatives present to the exhumation. Only 17 individuals (5.03%) showed signs of an autopsy, with cranial and thoracic autopsy cuts.Location and depth of the burial
The coffins located in the D5 area were buried in grave pits covered by green lawn measuring approximately 1000 m2, under full sun exposure (Figure 2), and no stone slabs were placed over any grave. The depth of each burial pit ranged between 1.8m to 2m.To read more about this article...Journals of Toxicology
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