Iris Publishers-Open access Journal of Dentistry & Oral Health | Bilateral Extended Nasolabial Flap for Lower Lip and Chin Reconstruction-A Case Report and Review of Literature

 

Authored by Shehla Khan*,

Introduction

Squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) of the lip is the most common malignancy accounting for 25% of all oral cavity cancers [1]. The lower lip is the most commonly effected site accounting for 90 % of the reported cases with strong male predominance. Most of these cases occur due to its greater exposure to the predisposing factors [2, 3]. Since lip SCC is a transitional zone tumor between skin and the oral mucosa, it acquires characteristics of both [4]. SCC grows through the mucosal surfaces and infiltrates the deep structures in a predictable fashion. Tumors can spread by direct penetration, tracking along the nerves and vascular invasion routes [5]. The defect left by excision of such tumors presents a challenge to the operating surgeon particularly when commissures are also involved. We report such a case in which excision was performed with simultaneous reconstruction using bilateral inferiorly based extended nasolabial flaps.

Keywords: Nasolabial flap; Facial artery ligation; lower lip and chin reconstruction; Plastic and reconstructive surgery; Head and neck oncology

Case Presentation

A 30-year-old woman presented with a recurrent fungating squamous cell carcinoma involving her lower lip including bilateral commissures and extending onto the chin area (Figure 1). She had continuous drooling of saliva and inability to eat food properly due to lack of competent seal of the oral aperture. Computed tomography (CT) with contrast showed the erosion of the anterior buccal cortical plate of the mandible. There was no radiologically significant disease in the neck. Patient was admitted and wide local excision was performed with 1cm margin and marginal mandibulectomy. Bilateral selective neck dissection (I-III) was also performed with preservation of facial artery. The size of the defect created after excision of the tumor was 6x8cm (Figure 2).

A bilateral inferiorly based nasolabial flap was marked on both sides 2-3mm lateral to the nasolabial fold. Facial artery was identified with Doppler ultrasonography and its course was marked. An axial pattern flap was raised just above the muscular layer to preserve the facial nerve. The inferiolateral end of the incision was extended laterally upto 2cm above the anterioinferior angle of masseter muscle. The medial incision was extended in downward direction to join the lateral border of the defect. The right nasolabial flap was used to reconstruct the resected part of the chin upto the future labio mental fold. Lingual mucosa was then sutured to the inner surface of the flap to recreate labial sulcus. Following this the left nasolabial flap was used to reconstruct the lower lip (Figure 3). Patient was kept on nasogastric feed for one week. Postoperatively there was sensation present to the light touch and pin prick in both flaps. On drinking water, pursing of lower lip was also noted.

Discussion

Defects created after tumor excision involving total lower lip and chin can be a great challenge to even the most experienced surgeon to reconstruct. A detailed assessment of the defect, including size, location, depth, extent, inclusion of the nearby subunits, and the effect on function are of paramount importance in determining the success of the reconstruction. Reconstructive goals include restoration of normal anatomy and function like oral competence and lip motion while minimizing secondary deformity and optimizing the aesthetic result. The techniques available for total lip construction include local flaps such as Bernard von Burrow-Webster and nasolabial flap [6, 7]. These flaps have the advantage of replacing like tissue with like and low morbidity. They generally produce good functional results and are aesthetically pleasing. Regional flaps like pectoralis major myocutaneous and deltopectoral flap have also been used but are bulky and nonfunctional [8, 9]. Free microvascular flaps like radial forearm and anterolateral thigh flap have been used with varying variations and success rates [10, 11].

In modern literature, nasolabial flap was first described by a German surgeon, John Friedrich Dieffenbach in 1846. Since then, this flap has been used extensively with varying success in reconstruction of orofacial defects [12, 13]. It can be raised unilaterally or bilaterally and can be designed as superiorly, inferiorly or centrally based pedicle flap. Its feeding vessel is facial artery that after originating from the external carotid passes underneath the posterior belly of digastric muscle and swirls around the submandibular gland before appearing at the anteroinferior border of the masseter muscle. It then travels upwards toward the medial canthus and terminates while anastomosing with ophthalmic branches of internal carotid artery with certain variation [14]. The flap is commonly designed lateral to the nasolabial fold with the medial limit of the flap 2-3mm lateral to this fold [15]. Traditionally, inferiorly based nasolabial flap are raised upto the oral commissure. However, for larger defects especially in cases of total lip chin defects, flap can be extended in downward direction. While generally these flaps are raised as pedicled flaps, difficulty arises when concomitant neck dissection is also planned. In such cases, random pattern flap may be harvested but it might increase the risk of partial or total necrosis particularly when bilateral facial arteries are ligated. Some authors have preserved the facial artery while performing the neck dissection, there is concern, however, that it might increase the risk of recurrence.

Varghese, et al. [16] in a large series of 224 cases performed 234 nasolabial flaps along with 63 functional neck dissections and 82 ipsilateral supraomohyoid neck dissections. 19 patients out of 212 developed either partial or total flap necrosis where facial artery was preserved. While in those cases (n=12) where facial artery was ligated, 2 developed total flap loss and 7 had partial necrosis (p=0.0000001). A significant difference indicating impact of facial artery ligation on flap survival. Overall, 23.2% (52) cases developed locoregional recurrence (p=0.03) in this series [16]. Similarly, Wijk, et al. [17] in another case series reported performing 105 flaps in 79 patients, of these 26 were bilateral. In all cases traditional modified radical neck dissection was performed. Partial flap loss was noted in 12 cases while 5 cases developed wound dehiscence. Secondary tumor or local recurrence was seen in 22% cases [17]. Singh et al, [18] in another case series reported 22 patients where nasolabial flap was harvested along with concomitant neck dissection while preserving the facial artery. In 15 cases, excision of tumor was acheived through intraoral excision while in 7 cases lip split was performed. Additionally, 7 patients received adjuvant radiotherapy. 3 patients developed wound dehiscence and one reported orocutaneous fistula while 1 suffered from local recurrence [18]. Mebed, et al. [19] in another case series of 23 patients, performed 19 nasolabial flaps and 4 facial artery musculomucosal flaps. In all cases, concomitant neck dissection was performed while ligating the facial artery. They reported 2 cases of wound dehiscence and 1 case of partial necrosis [19]. In another study by Ducic, et al. [20] nasolabial performed on 18 patients. 4 of these cases were performed along with ipsilateral radical neck dissection (facial artery ligated). No complication was noted effecting the flaps in this series [20].

The summary of these results along with other are given in (Table 1). A metanalysis of these results show that over all 515 nasolabial flaps were performed. Facial artery was ligated in 163 while preserved in 352. Those cases where facial artery was ligated, 27 (16.5%) developed either partial or complete necrosis but in those where facial artery was preserved, only 13 (3.69%) developed partial or complete necrosis (p <0.001). Overall, 347 concomitant neck dissections were performed in these cases with overall locoregional recurrence rate of 20.7% (72) cases. It is however not clear that whether risk of neck recurrence increased with facial artery preservation [16-25].

Table 1:

Conclusion

Nasolabial flap is a widely harvested flap in head and neck region for local reconstruction. Its width can be a limiting factor but if raised bilaterally, can compensate for it. Extended flaps may be required occasionally for more complex and inferior defects. In such cases where concomitant neck dissection is planned, facial artery ligation may compromise flap survival. Risk of recurrence associated with facial artery preservation is not clear even if it is an elective procedure.

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Iris Publishers-Open access Journal of Otolaryngology and Rhinology | One Stage Multilevel Surgery for the Treatment of Obstructive Sleep Apnea Syndrome

 

Authored by GL Khandanyan*,

Abstract

Background: In this study, the outcome of uvulopalatopharyngoplasty combined with radiofrequency of the tongue base reduction was investigated in patients with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome with both palatal and retrolingual obstruction.

Patients and methods: A retrospective cohort study was performed in patients with mild to severe OSAS. Forty-two patients with OSAS who underwent RFTBR combined with UPPP took part in this study Surgical success was defined as AHI<20 with more than 50% reduction in AHI and a response rate considered as reduction of AHI between 20 and 50%. The overall response rate was defined as more than 20% reduction in AHI.

Results: BMI was not changed significantly before (28.64±5.14kg/m2) and after surgery (28.41±5.21kg/m2). Mean AHI decreased from 49±7.23/hour to 12.63±5.72/hour (p<0.05) and mean reduction rate of AHI was 74.43±7.25% for all 42 patients, 78.9±5.14% in patients with Friedman’s anatomical stage II and 69.9±7.13% in patients with stage III (p<0.05 for both). The mean snoring sound decreased significantly from 3.35±0.67 to 1.25±1.03 at the 6th post-operative month (p<0.05). The mean value for ESS was significantly decreased from 12.6±2.17 to 5.3±1.217 at the 6th post-operative month (p<0.05).

Conclusion: Single-session RFTBR combined with uvulopalatalpharyngoplasty is an effective treatment for reducing symptoms and AHI in OSAS patients with multilevel obstruction.

Keywords: Sleep apnea; Snoring; Uvulopalatopharyngoplasty; Tongue base; Radiofrequency

Introduction

Obstructive sleep apnea syndrome (OSAS) is a very frequent and increasingly recognized major health problem [1]. OSAS may result in cardiovascular diseases, quality of life deficits and performance deficits from loss of alertness [2-5]. Nasal continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) is considered the gold standard for the primary treatment of moderate to severe OSAS [6]. However, the therapeutic use of nasal CPAP is seriously limited by low long-term compliance [7]. The surgical approach is still the most common OSAS treatment method and varieties of surgical techniques have been well-described in managing OSAS. Uvulopalatopharyngoplasty (UPPP) and radio frequency-induced thermotherapy (RFITT) of the soft palate have been widely used for the treatment of velopharyngeal obstruction in OSAS [8,9]. Tissue volume reduction of the tongue base with RFITT was first introduced as a minimally invasive technique of sleep disordered breathing in 1999 by Powell, et al. [10]. In this study, we present our results of single-session radiofrequency of the tongue base reduction (RFTBR) combined with UPPP for the treatment of OSAS patients with multilevel obstruction.

Materials and Methods

The study was conducted collaboratively at the Department of Otorhinolaryngology of «Erebouni» medical center and Sleep Laboratory of the Institute of Cardiology between 2014 and 2017. Forty-two patients with OSAS (both with velopharyngeal and retro lingual collapses) were involved in the study (age ranging from 28 to 61 years (mean age±SEM: 47±6.27), 30 men and 12 women). None of the patients had previous velopharyngeal or lingual surgery. Patients were evaluated preoperatively and 6 months postoperatively by history taking, physical examination, fiberoptic nasopharyngoscopy and polysomnography. Retropalatal and retrolingual obstructions were determined by physical examination and observed by sleep endoscopy with midazolam. All patients with multilevel obstruction underwent one-stage RFTBR combined with UPPP. The study was approved by our institutional review board.

Selection criteria for the proposed treatment included significant symptoms of snoring, excessive daytime somnolence, and an apnea/hypopnea index (AHI) greater than 15. UPPP combined with RFTBR was applied only for patients with OSAS stage II or III. Patients with OSAS stage I were excluded from the examination, because they have a higher than 80% success rate when treated with UPPP only [11]. All of the preoperative examinations and the measurements including the BMI, visual analogue scoring system (VAS) for snoring (0-4) (Table 1), Epworth sleepiness scale (ESS) and polysomnography were repeated 6 months after surgical intervention. As the most important parameter for determination of OSAS, we chose the AHI during sleep. The overall response rate was defined as more than 20% reduction in AHI.

Table 1: Snoring VAS.

UPPP was carried out according to Ichiro Komada’s technique plus RFVTR of middle part of soft palate, along the uvula [12]. RFTBR was performed using the Ellman Surgitron Dual-Frequency IEC-II 4MHz (USA). Because the initial procedure was combined with UPPP, general anesthesia was required. All patients received antibiotics intravenously for 2 days postoperatively and then orally for 1 week. Oral painkillers and steroid were administered routinely. Patients were usually discharged after 2 days of surgery. After operation, the patients continued using CPAP for at least 8 to 10 days after surgery with the help of a nasal mask.

Statistical analysis

Dispersion analyses with parametric and nonparametric criteria using the GRAPH PAD PRISM5 were used in this study. Results of independent experiments were used to calculate mean values±standard errors of means (SEM), and differences were defined as statistically significant by Student’s t-test, P≤0.05. UPPP was carried out according to Ichiro Komada’s technique plus RFVTR of middle part of soft palate, along the uvula [12].

Results

Out of the 42 patients who underwent RFTBR combined with UPPP and completed the study, two had tongue base ulcerations that resolved after 1 week and one patient had complaints of slight difficulty of swallowing that lasted for one-week post-operation. Two patients complained of parageusia which resolved within 2 to 2.5 months. No postoperative complications including infections, abscesses, hematomas or airway obstruction were recorded. None of the 42 cases showed stenosis of the nasopharynx, dysphagia or Globus sensation. BMI did not change significantly before (28.64±5.14 kg/m2) and after surgery (28.41±5.21kg/ m2). Objective assessment was carried out preoperative and 6 months after operation. 30 patients were classified as stage II and 12 patients as stage III according to the Friedman staging system (Table 2).

Table 2: Outcome for 42 patients as classified by Friedman’s anatomical stage.

Objective success defined as a reduction of AHI by±50% and AHI<20 was obtained in 38 of the 42 patients (90%). Mean AHI decreased from 49.4±7.23/hour to 12.63±5.72/hour (p<0.05) (Table 2) and mean reduction rate of AHI was 74.43±7.25% for all 42 patients, 78.9±5.14% in patients with Friedman’s anatomical stage II and 69.9±7.13% in patients with stage III (p<0.05 for both). Significant differences were observed within each group. The mean snoring sound decreased significantly from 3.35±0.67 to 1.25±1.03 at 6th month after operation (p<0.05) (Table 2). The mean value for ESS significantly declined from 12.6± 2.17 to 5.3±1.217 after 6 months’ post-operation (p<0.05) (Table 2).

In the patients with Friedman’s anatomical stage II group the mean snoring sound decreased significantly from 2.81±0.16 to 1.14±0.03 at the 6th month (p<0.05) (Table 2). In the patients with Friedman’sanatomical stage III group the mean VAS for snoring in patients of that group was 3.24±0.7 preoperatively and 1.45±0.03 (p<0.05) in the last visit (6 months post-operation) (Table 2). Postoperative ESS values were significantly reduced after treatment for both stage II and III patients. The ESS index decreased from 11.27±1.62 to 4.27±1.29 in patients with Friedman’s anatomical stage II, and from 13.16±1.75 to 6.24±1.08 in patients with stage III (p<0.05 for both) (Table 2).

Discussion

There is great importance in evaluating the level of airway obstruction and assessing multilevel pharyngeal surgery for overcoming collapse at multiple levels of the pharyngeal airway. The study we conducted shows that combined treatment of UPPP and RFTBR for patients with both palatal and retrolingual obstruction is highly effective in eliminating symptoms that most often make the patients seek treatment. To be more exact, 88.4% of the patients included in the study had significant reduction of snoring levels whereas all the participating patients noted subjective reduction of daytime somnolence. Sher, et al. [13] reported previously that a patient population without tongue-based obstruction demonstrated a 42% UPPP success rate. The success rate was 5% in patients with tongue base obstruction [13].

Nelson combined two subsequent RFTBR with UPPP in patients with multilevel obstructison for which he obtained an improved response rate (50% success rate) [14]. According to our results, objective success, as evaluated by a reduction in AHI of±50% and AHI<20, was obtained in 38 of the 42 patients (90%). Friedman, et al. [15] reported that UPPP exhibited a success rate of 37.9% in Friedman stage II patients and 8.1% success rate in stage III patients. In stages II and III patients treated with UPPP and RFTBR, success rates were 74.0 and 43.8%, respectively [15]. Among these patients, 59.3% were operated on with a one-time tongue base radiofrequency reduction, while the others received a maximum of six procedures. In our study, the success rate was 81% and 70% in stage II and III patients, respectively.

Most frequent complications after UPPP in OSAS patients are velopharyngeal insufficiency, dysphagia, persistent dryness, Globus sensation and nasopharyngeal stenosis. All these side effects are reportedly seen from 10% to 58% of OSAS patients postoperatively [16-19]. The most important concept in our method of surgery is to preserve the uvula and leave the middle soft palate intact. In this study, no one of patient displayed nasopharyngeal stenosis, velopharyngeal insufficiency, dysphagia, persistent dryness and globus sensation in 6 months follow-up period after surgery. The lateral pharyngoplasty described by Cahali preserves the middle soft palate, and it established a 53% success rate in 15 patients. Mean AHI decreased from 41.6 to 15.5 after surgery [20]. Because of the implementation of UPPP combined with RFTBR techniques in our study, we achieved a high post-operative success rate (90%).

Conclusion

Single-session RFTB combined with uvulopalatopharyngoplasty is an effective treatment method for symptom and AHI reduction in OSAS patients with multilevel obstruction. It is also considered safe because of the minimal postoperative morbidity and complication rate. The presented a method of the UPPP for the surgical treatment of OSAS patients, is a new concept for the creation of separate right and left scars, leaving the middle soft palate intact. The intact middle soft palate and separated scars create a widened pharyngeal space while preserving the pharyngeal functions.

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Iris Publishers- Open access Journal of of Agriculture and Soil Science | Horticulture Development in India: Issues and Scenario of Space Technology

 

Authored by Gouri Sankar Bhunia*,

Abstract

Present paper provides a comprehensive review on the development and application of space technology for horticultural development in India. The review includes various application of geospatial technology including satellite data, image processing operation for orchard delineation and proposed planning for smart horticultural development in India. A conceptual framework was design for big data applications in smart farming of horticultural development and strategy for future development. This study will be helpful to encourage researchers to advance the horticultural development with post-harvest management of the crops in India and other developing countries.

Keywords: Horticulture; Geospatial technology; Data infrastructure; Crop management

Introduction

Horticulture refers to the art and science of growing fruits, vegetables, flowers and other plants for human food, non-food uses and social needs. India is the domicile for numerous horticultural crops of commercial significance. 30% of the India’s GDP accounts from horticulture and provides about 37.1% of the total exports of agricultural commodities. In 2017-2018, approximately 306.8 million tones production have been estimated and shared about 33% of total agricultural production (Ministry of Agriculture, India). Historical report suggested that the growth rate of horticultural crop production accounted for 2.7% per year (Figure 1). This may be attributed to irrigational facilities, technological improvement, involvement of small and marginal farmers and better agronomic practice and improved varieties of seeds etc. However, horticulture in India is facing several challenges like, inadequate availability of planting materials, rein fed horticulture, dearth of market facility, post-harvest management, lack of processing facilities and insufficient trained manpower etc. Forecasting Agricultural output using Space, Agrometeorology and Land based observations (FASAL) programme, Govt of India aims at providing multiple preharvest production forecast and crops at National/State/district level [1]. Present paper is to provide a review of studies of use of geospatial technology and its future prospects in horticulture development in India.

Remote Sensing & Horticultural Development

Over the past few decades, horticulture has grown from planned monitoring using satellite derived information for large scale decision building to strategic planning and control. Consequently, integration of Global Positioning System, Geographic Information System and remote Sensing technology has modernized horticultural revolution [2]. Remote sensing technology like crop identification, crop intensification, orchard rejuvenation, aqua horticulture soil health mapping, crop yield estimation, land resource mapping would help the farmers to grow their horticulture crops in a profitable manner. Satellite data provide the precise information of irrigated crop areas by monitoring the phonological development of crops through multi-temporal image [3]. Weather condition is important aspects that hasten/delay the phonological phases of horticultural crops [4]. Hence, timely monitoring horticultural crop and advanced image processing techniques can be applied to infer the spectral reflectance values of phonological changes in development. Sensors are designed to identify the crops based on the spectral signature of the various wavelengths of electromagnetic spectrum. Multi-spectral satellite data with visible and Nearinfrared (NIR) bands provides ample evidences for differentiating fruit plants based on the spectral characteristics, available in the visible and NIR bands. However, some fruit crops have a very long range for the highest spectral reflectance (800–1,100 nm band). Sutherland et al. [5] have used Thermal-infrared (TIR) imagery to detect frost on horticultural crops for subsequent decision making. Moreover, the use of Light Detection and Ranging (LIDAR) data has an enormous capacity because it can resolve plant heights along with spectral characteristics [6]. Consequently, different remote sensors were developed to identify the factors that may affect the crop growth and yield variability. For instance, large area orchard mapping can easily be done using medium resolution satellite data (pixel size 10 – 100m); but small orchards (<2.5 ha) surrounded by forest or tall grasses cannot be differentiated easily [7]. Sharma & Panigrahy [8] used Indian Remote Sensing Satellite (IRS) LISS III (spatial resolution 23.5m) and IRS AWiFS (spatial resolution- 55 m) satellite data to develop an apple orchard database for Himachal Pradesh (India) and were victorious in the demarcation using a comparatively coarse satellite data. Torres et al. [9] used 0.25 – 1.5m resolution data to distinguish olive tree by clustering assessment technique. Lee et al. [10] discussed the different characteristics of the satellite sensors to monitor and measure the biotic and abiotic stress associated to crop. Veena et al., (2016) used World-view-2 and IRS-P6-LISS-III multispectral data to investigate the young and mature horticulture fruit crops in Hisar district of Haryana (India). Recent advancement of image processing techniques and use of microwave and hyperspectral data, most fruits and nut plants can be distinguished from the mixed vegetation or other small shrubs [11- 13] investigated the role wireless sensor in future perspective of agriculture and food industry. Advanced Land Observing Satellite/ Phased Array L-band Synthetic Aperture Radar (ALOS/PALSAR) provides the possibility of estimating soil moisture distribution in small farmlands [11]. The hyper-spectral sensors have been evaluated for estimating crop yield [14], green biomass [15], and crop disease [16]. The Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) play an important role to retrieve different geophysical parameters, like soil moisture monitoring of the Earth’s surface [17].

Modernise Horticulture and Space Technology

Site-specific crop management (SSCM) is one of the most important activity for horticulture which involves spatial referencing, crop and climate monitoring, attribute mapping, decision support system and so on [18]. Tall crop canopy (sugarcane), pigeon pea, and other horticultural crops has confirmed challenging task for competent praying process. In wet land situation, ground stirring instrument persuade undesirable impact for instance hardpan improvement. Low altitude remote sensing (LARS) is very effective for horticultural development with manned airplanes at 300 – 1000 m and Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) at 10 – 300 m. LARS data is helpful for crop monitoring and managing crops duration during the growing season through variable rate applications of seeds, fertilizer, pesticides and water etc. Moreover, UAV-based sensors have provided very high spatial resolution data (e.g., the pixel resolution from 5.57 m to 1 mm) for crop acreage change monitoring, crop yield estimation, crop growth monitoring, soil moisture monitoring, disaster monitoring and information service etc. [19]. Ahirwar et al. [20] studied application of Drone technology in agriculture. Currently Maharashtra state government signed a partnership with the World Economic Forum (WEF) Centre for the Fourth Industrial Revolution exploring the use of drones to improve irrigation systems in agricultural field by estimating soil conditions, crop yield prediction, crop disease, pest management, unpredictable seasonal variations etc. The innovative UAV platform for farming may lure to rural youth which diminishing, as it is having the comfortable working environment. Agriculture Insurance Company (AIC), India along with Skynet has carried out few pilot investigations in Gujrat and Rajasthan to evaluate UAV viability for agricultural surveying, crop disease mapping for crop insurance claim settlement [21]. The Director of India Flying Lads (i.e., part of We Robotics) providing training of the tribal people of the Dahanu-Palghar belt of Maharashtra on crop rotation, aquaponics, hydroponics, fish farming, bio-waste management, organic farming, bio-based crop protection using Drone. This congregated information can be considered to presume pinpoint causes of problems and surface up efficient explanation for improving agricultural production, efficiency, and net profit of farming society.

Smart Horticulture and Development

A significant trend for agricultural development has been considered using technology stack, for investment and realization of additional value within the agri-food sector [22,23]. Smart agriculture technologies provide three basic requirements for horticultural development by identifying the precise location of the field, spatiotemporal variability of soil and crop conditions and farming practices at field level. More, smart farming in horticulture includes, bench marking, tele-communication deployment, advance processing and geo-computation, predictive modelling, manager of crop failure risk, agri-business, live-stock production, nutritional balance, sustainable development. A schematic diagram of smart farming for horticultural development is represented in Figure 2. By using smart phone and camera in the form of snapped pictures, pinpoint locations, soil colors, chlorophyll measurements and ripeness level provides more accurate and reliable information for precision farming. Moreover, Global Positioning System (GPS), Microphone, Accelerometer and gyroscopes offered the location of crop production, fertilizing, solar radiation protection, predictive maintenance of machinery, leaf area index and equipment rollover. Recently, many smartphones have instigated to add Internet of Things (IOT) to bring up-to-date actionable information to small farmers regarding weeding, seeding, watering and fertilizing. Recently, data science and big data technology are progressively combined into precision agricultural design that will be helpful for timely decision making [23]. Recently, the agribusiness data such as purchasing inputs, feeding, seeding, use of fertilizer boosted by the IOT to record and monitor business events of interest. Hence, the space technology is changing the scope and organization of farming through geo-computation, telecommunication, advance image processing operation, agribusiness, IOT, planning and decision making.

Spatial Modelling & Horticulture Development

Spectral reflectance curves have been created for individual fruit and crops from the satellite data through Crop modelling and management system [24]. In regard to this, hyperspectral images are preferred for accurate classification of different crops. Moreover, spatial pixel swapping, spatial simulated annealing and Hopfield neural networks, feed-forward back-propagation neural networks methods have been considered for mapping and interpretation of super-resolution data. SAMIR model derived through the SPOT sensor data have used to estimate the regional evapotranspiration and crop water consumption [25]. Liou and Kar [26] developed surface-energy-balance-algorithms for estimation of the evapotranspiration to improve the irrigation crop management. Several vegetation indices (e.g., enhanced vegetation index [EVI], soil adjusted vegetation index [SAVI], simple ratio [SR], normalized difference vegetation index [NDVI], soil and plant analyzer development [SPAD]. leaf area index [LAI] etc) have been set-up to measure the different crop parameters such as, crop density, biomass, chlorophyll, nitrogen, water content related to physiological processes (e.g., transpiration and photosynthesis) [27,28]. Currently, deep learning has been developed from remote sensing image classification [29]. Plants showing symptoms of wilting emit more longwave infrared radiation, revealing canopy temperature. U.S Water Conservation Laboratory in the 1970s and 1980s, was developed Crop Water Stress Index (CWSI) model for the irrigation purpose [30]. Advanced satellite image classification methods such as ISODATA, WARD-minimum variance technique, k-means clustering, Bayesian classification algorithm, fuzzy, multivariate cluster analysis, and artificial neural and selforganizing map are being worn to define horticultural crops [7]. The object-based image classification (OBIC) provides a novel plan to execute image segmentation for orchard mapping to combine the neighborhood pixel with similar spectral signature [31]. Rathore et al. [32] proposed a real time big-data analytical architecture that will be helpful for the horticultural development to solve large scale technical problems. This machine learning techniques handles deep feature extraction with huge volume of satellite data for horticultural mapping and analysis.

Post-Harvest Management and Space Technology

Losses of horticultural production are the key delinquent in poor-harvest, began by a wide diversity of aspects, vacillating from rising situations to handling at marketing level (Adeoye et al., 2009). Post-harvest management and post-harvest behavior (e.g., cooling, transportation, storage, lack of awareness, poor management, market dysfunction etc) of horticulture productions have not been assumed proper attention over the years. Approximately 15-50% of the developing nations are suffering from post-harvest management of horticultural crops [14]. Hegazy [33] investigated that postharvest losses in India range from 5.8 to 18% in case of fruits and 6.8% to 12% for vegetables. The integration of remote sensing and GIS techniques offers great potentiality for better extraction of environmental variables for spatial data management. Vijjapu et al. [34] studied deficiency of post-harvest infrastructure assessment of potato for Bihar state in India using IRS LISS III and AWiFs satellite data and proposed new location for cold storages to reduce the loss of agricultural production. Geospatial technology has been used in wide range of post-harvest management in horticultural activities including cold storage facility, market availability, site specific crop management and proposed site demarcation for suitable crop production etc.

Future Prospects

Future policy for implementation of horticulture in India should contemplate the problem of land fragmentation, deficiency of highly urbane technical centers for horticulture, data management, agri-business, and dead reckoning system. Spatial data provides valuable information for horticultural variables, such as yield, biotic, abiotic indicators of crops, analyses different sites and farms [35,36]. UAV and big data technology offer a novel toolset to farmers and growers to lessen the costs and rise yields by curtailing the practice of fertilizer, insecticides, fungicides and other chemicals, while improving overall plant health and crop yield. Substantially, space technology has provided growers with a vigorous and trustworthy technique for decision making about spatial management of their fields. The establishment of fourlayer- twelve-level (FLTL) and five-layer-fifteen-level (FLFL) remote sensing data management structure provides management and application framework for huge volume data management and local farm studies. Overall, several aspects need to be considered for the horticultural development through geospatial technology, such as reliable data with high temporal resolution, efficient organization and management of satellite derived information, horticultural information infrastructure building with automated processing and simulation models to enhance the quality and competent of horticultural spatial analysis. Expansion of postharvest protocol for various fruits, vegetables, preservation of fruits, and marketbased farming practice, assortment of cultivar, rising season needs to be appraised and modernized. Small entrepreneurs at farm level may be encouraged for agribusiness. Large scale multiplication of important varieties for distribution among farmers to be standardized through specific management practice. Screening and development of appropriate protected environment and structures for disease control.

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Iris Publishers- Open access Journal of of Engineering Sciences | Modeling Void Ratio Influences on Shigella Transport in Heterogeneous Grave Depositions

 

Authored by Eluozo SN*,

Abstract

The study examined the transport of Shigella in heterogeneous gravel formation, this is to monitored the migration of Shigella in two different ways, monitoring of the contaminants at vertical direction were increase in in concentration with respect to change in depth and monitoring the concentration influenced by variation of gravel porosities, these two dimension were carried out, it was observed that the transport of Shigella in vertical direction experienced exponential growth rate to the optimum level recorded at ninety meters, this can be attributed to deposition of micronutrients that may increase the population rate of Shigella, this increase the concentration of the contaminant to the optimum depth, while that of porosity influences experienced variation of soil consolidation, decrease in porosity where high consolidation is observed experienced high concentration of Shigella, while increase in soil porosity decrease the concentration of Shigella at different location as observed from the study, the predictive values were subjected to model validation, and both parameters developed best fits correlation, the study has express the influenced from variation of soil porosity under fluctuation of soil consolidation in the study. It has also expressed the growth rate of Shigella influenced by variation of micronutrients in the formation; experts will definitely fine this study useful in monitoring and evaluation of microbial transport in soil and water environment. The study is imperative because the previous study monitored the system on the migration rates based on the deposition of microelement that normally increase its population, but present study observed the effect from velocity variation and its rate of deposition as determination factor for the growth rate of the contaminant in the study environment. This implies that the velocity deposition precisely monitors it observation as it become the determination factor for the depositional variation of enteric virus in coarse depositions.

Keywords: Modeling; Transport enteric virus velocity; Coarse deposition

Introduction

The reaction from 1996 Amendments on Safe Drinking Water Act, including the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) that are the developer of Ground-Water Rule (GWR). This will always protect users of public ground-water supplies from viral contamination [1-6]. Due the fact that total coliform bacteria are normally applied an indicator of the possibility or probable existence of pathogenic contamination from microbial pathogens, several groundwater suppliers applied the absence of coliform as justification for not disinfecting source water. Despite the inherent complications related with the identification of viruses in water, disease epidemics have been attributed to specific episodes of viral pollution in ground water [3-7]. There has been a suggestion as viral indicators. Coliphages are a bacterial virus that is known to infect the coliform bacterial group. Most of these coliphages that are superficially similar to the enteric viruses, they are known to share symmetrical structures, morphologies, and sizes, they also have similar half-lives in natural waters [8-10]. Some coliphages, precisely infect “male” strains of Escherichia coli (E. coli), or “malespecific” coliphages, they are normally found in human feces, this has been identified in huge numbers in human wastewater [11].

• Outbreaks of viral etiology have been documented in waters that met coliform criteria for drinking purposes [12-16].

• Viruses may be considerably more resilient in the environment than coliforms [17,18].

• The infectious dose of many viral diseases is considerably lower than that observed for enteric bacterial disease [19-21].

Theoretical Backgrounds

Nomenclature:

C = Shigella Concentration

A(x) = void Ratio /Permeability of Soil

B(x) = Velocity of Flow

C-n-[α1x] = void ratio of soil

x = Depth

Transform the above Bernoulli’s Equation to a linear first order DE gives:

Use I.F to Solve (2) above

Hence, the general Solution becomes:

Materials and Method

Standard laboratory experiment where performed to monitor Shigella using the standard method for the experiment at different formation, the soil deposition of the strata were collected in sequences base on the structural deposition of the lithology at different locations, this samples collected at different location generated variations at different depths producing different Shigella concentration through column experiment, from the pressure flow at different strata, the experimental result were compared with the theoretical values for the validation of the model.

Results and Discussion

Results and discussion are presented in tables including graphical representation for Shigella concentration (Tables 1-7).

Table 1: Predictive and experimental values of shigella concentration at different depth.

Table 2: Predictive and experimental values of shigella concentration at different depth.

Table 3: Predictive and experimental values of shigella concentration at different depth.

Table 4: Predictive and experimental values of shigella concentration at different depth.

Table 5: Predictive and experimental values of shigella concentration at different depth.

Table 6: Predictive and experimental values of shigella concentration at different depth.

Table 7:Variation of shigella concentration at different depth.

Figures 1-7 explain the behavior of the system in terms of growth rate of Shigella in heterogeneous grave depositions, the figures experienced linear trend under exponential condition, the transport of the microbes observed increase with respect to depth, but the concentration were observed in different rates, the simulation express the behavior of Shigella migration in gravel deposition, these condition were expressed from various figures as it explained the influence of heterogeneous structure of the formation to be insignificant from the observed effect on the rate of concentration, because it express linear growth rate to the optimum depth, increase in concentration with respect to increase in depth were observed from all the figures, the experimental values compared favorably well with the predictive values, the optimum rate of concentration recorded at ninety meters, but the rate of concentration varies based on the porosity depositions of gravel in the study location, figure seven observed the rate of porosity variation with respect to variation of concentration in different depositions and locations, the figure experienced consolidation of porosity variation in the lithe structures of the formation, thus the concentration observed increase at high consolidation of the porosity, but suddenly decrease in concentration were it experienced decrease in consolidation thus high increase in porosity of the formation. The figure explained the influenced from soil porosity in various deposition of the formation.

Conclusion

The study expresses the effect of porosities in various depositions of gravel, the transport of Shigella were monitored to determine the effect of porosity on the deposition and transport of the microbes in such heterogeneous gravel formation. The study expresses the variation of soil porosity in different condition monitored in the system, the transport rate was from three to ninety meters depth, linear trend was observed in the study, but with different concentration. Monitoring the effect of porosity on the migration of Shigella on variation of porosity with respect to concentration is based on the rate of the formation consolidation. decrease in soil porosity generated higher concentration at three meters, but when the porosity of the soil experienced decrease in it consolidation thus high porosity, decrease in concentration were observed, despite exponential growth rate were the optimum concentration were recorded at ninety meters, when the concentration were monitored in terms of variation influences of porosity, the concentration experienced lower concentration recorded at [0.40] while the highest concentration were observed at porosity rate of [0.23] these has explained the behavior of the transport in two dimension increase in concentration based on increase in depth, this could be attribute to deposition of micronutrients, while high to low concentration are based on the influences from variation of soil porosity in gravel depositions. The study has expressed the behavior of Shigella in terms of transport were micronutrient are deposited, it has also explained the influenced from variation of soil porosity in Shigella depositions on gravel formations.

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